HD 9486 
.n4 U4 
1917 
Copy 1 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

I BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DO/VIESTIC COMMERCE 

B. S. CUTLER, Acting Chief 



SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES— No. 146 



MARKETS FOR 

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND 

MACHINERY IN SOUTH AFRICA 



BY 



JUAN HOMS 

Commercial Agent 




PRICE, 20 CENTS 

Sold by the Superintendent of Documents, Goviernment Printing Office 
Washington,' D. C. 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1917 




irq 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE 

B. S. CUTLER, Actingr Chief 



SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES— No. 146 



MARKETS FOR 

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND 

MACHINERY IN SOUTH AFRICA 



BY 

JUAN HOMS 

Commercial Agent 




PRICE» 20 CENTS 

Sold by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office 
Washington, D. C. 

WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1917 



CONTENTS. 



IV. Market tor particular lines of 
equipment — Continued. 

Reapers 

Stripper harvesters 

Corn binders 

Corn pickers 

Mowers 

Rakes 

Hay presses 

Corn shellers 

Feed grinders and crushers . 
Farm wagons and trucks. . . 

Carriages 

Windmills 

Pumps 

Spraying machinery 

Silos and ensilage cutters. . . 

Chaff cutters 

Cream separators 

Dairy-bam equipment 

Milking machines 

Fencing and gates 

Manure spreaders 

7. Trade methods and suggestions. 

Catalogues and correspond- 
ence 

Salesmen 

Expense allowances 

Tentative routes 

Direct and continuous repre- 
sentation 

Agencies 

Branch houses 

Postage to South Africa 

Packing. 

Instructions for setting up 
and operating instruments. 

Repair-part lists 

Invoicing 

Shipping 

Customs duties 

Methods of payment 

Credits 

Advertising 

Weights, measures, and cur- 
rency 

Railway and steamship facili- 
ties 

Freight rates during the 



war 



VI. South African international 

trade 

The import trade 

The export trade 



Page. 
149 
149 
149 
149 
149 
150 
150 
151 
152 
153 
154 
155 
155 
156 
156 
157 
157 
158 
158 
158 
158 
160 

160 
162 
164 
165 

166 
167 
168 
168 
168 

169 
169 
170 
171 
171 
172 
173 
173 

175 

175 

177 

178 
178 
179 



VI. South African international 
trade — Continue d . 
Distribution of foreign 

trade 

Dominant position of 

United Kingdom 

Trade of United States. . . 
Trade by ports and routes. 

Effects of the war 

VII. Rhodesia 

General review of the 

country 

Southern Rhodesia 

Physical features 

Climate and rainfall 

Chief trading centers. . . 
Economic development 

Railways 

Development of agri- 
culture 

Land under cultivation. 

Land bank 

Sales of land 

Miscellaneous farming 

notes 

Principal crops grown . . 
Live stock and dairying 
Farm-machinery trade . 
Types of implements 

used 

Trade methods and out- 
look 

Northern Rhodesia 

Climate and rainfall 

Trading centers 

Imports and exports 

Mineral resources 

Railway and other 

transportation 

Development prospects 
Agricultiu-al develop- 
ment '. 

Land settlement — La- 
bor 

Manner of acquiring 

land 

Chief farming areas 

Principal difficulties . . . 

Stock raising 

Farm-machinery trade . 

VIII . Portuguese East Africa 

Political divisions 

Language, currency, 
weights, and measures. . 



Page. 

180 

182 

183/ 

185 

185 

188 

188 
188 
188 
188 
189 
189 
192 

192 
193 
194 
195 

195 
196 
199 
200 

200 

201 
202 
202 
202 
202 
202 

203 
203 

203 

203 

204 
204 
205 
205 
205 
207 
207 

207 



CONTENTS. 



VIII. Portuguese East Africa — 

Continued. Page. 

Physical features 208 

Chief ports 208 

Railways 209 

Province of Mozambique. 209 

Mineral resources 209 

Economic development 209 
Lourengo Marques dis- 
trict 210 

Inhambane district 210 

Quelimane district 210 

Tete district 211 

Mozambique district. . . 211 
Development of agri- 
culture 211 

Principal crops grown. . 211 
Farm-machinery trade. 212 
Mozambique Co.'s terri- 
tory 213 

Rainfall 213 

Foreign trade 213 

Trade prospects 214 

Mining 214 

Development of agri- 
culture 214 

Area of land cultivated . 215 

Acquisition of land 215 

Agriculture on the Zam- 
besi 216 

Principal crops grown. 216 

Live stock 218 

Farm-machinery trade. 218 

Nyassa Co.'s territory 219 



Page. 

IX. Southwest Africa 220 

Physical features 220 

Chmate and rainfall 220 

Principal settlements 221 

Foreign trade 221 

Mining 222 

Railways 222 

Agricultural conditions 

and prospects 222 

Irrigation possibilities 223 

Stock raising 224 

Karakul sheep — Ostriches 224 
Market for farm machin- 
ery and implements 224 

X. Belgian Kongo: Katanga. . . 226 
Official encouragement 

and aid for agriculture. . 226 
Desirability of coopera- 
tion 227 

Demand for agricultural 

prqduce 228 

Farm-machinery trade. . . 228 

XI. Mauritius 229 

Foreign trade 229 

Land under cultivation — 

Crops grown 229 

Sugar growing 230 

Methods of sugar cultiva- 
tion 230 

Labor 231 

Market for farm machin- 

231 



ery. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 
Fig. 1. Three-furrow disk plow, made in England 128 

2. Double-furrow plow, made in Germany 134 

3. Double-furrow walking plow, made in Germany 135 

4. Three-furrow fallowing plow, made in Germany 136 

5. English disk harrow 137 

6. Chaff cutter, fly-wheel type, made in England 157 

Map of Union of South Africa inside back cover. 



4 



LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 



Department of Commerce, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 

Washington^ August i, 1917. 
Sir : There is submitted herewith a report on the markets for agri- 
cultural implements and machinery in South Africa, by Commercial 
Agent Juan Horns. Mr. Homs has covered with thoroughness and 
a clear appreciation of fundamental factors the agricultural condi- 
tions that prevail in the Union of South Africa, in Rhodesia, and in 
certain of the less important regions contiguous thereto. He has not 
confined himself to a bare statement of the elements that enter di- 
rectly into the implement business. Eecognizing the importance of 
a broad and general comprehension of the underlying circumstances 
that determine the extent and character of that trade, he has dis- 
cussed at some length topography, climate and rainfall, soil condi- 
tions, the character of the population, the classes of labor employed, 
the progress made in the direction of careful and scientific methods, 
the activities in agricultural education, and, in the main, all those 
aspects of the subject that have even an indirect bearing on the 
market for farm equipment. The crops grown in South Africa and 
the means employed to produce them are considered in detail. In the 
sections of the monograph that relate more intimately to the oppor- 
tunity for American goods it is felt that Mr. Homs's many descrip- 
tions of the machines used by South African agriculturists and his 
account of the methods ordinarily followed in their importation and 
sale will be especially helpful to the American manufacturers who 
desire to build up a greater trade in this very promising and imper- 
fectly developed field. 

Respectfully, B. S. Cutler, 

Acting Chief of Bureau. 
To Hon. William C. Redfield, 

Secretary of Commerce. 

7 



MARKETS FOR AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY IN 

SOUTH AFRICA. 



I. INTRODUCTION. 

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND GOVERNMENT. 

The Union of South Africa is situated in the southernmost part 
of the African Continent. It lies between longitudes 16° 26' and 
32° 54' E., and between latitudes 32° 10' and 34° 51' S. It is 
bounded on the west and east by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, 
respectively, and on the north by Southwest Africa, Bechuanaland 
Protectorate, Ehodesia, and Portuguese East Africa. The length of 
its coast line, exclusive of minor indentations, is about 1,760 miles. 

The Union of South Africa is a self-governing British dominion, 
formed in May, 1910, and comprising Cape, Natal, Orange Free 
State, and Transvaal Provinces. A governor general representing 
the King, with a council or ministry, administers the executive branch 
of the government. Legislative power is vested in a parliament* 
which consists of a senate and a house of assembl}^. The native 
protectorates within or adjoining the Union's boundaries are Basuto- 
land, Bechuanaland, and Swaziland, administered as Crown colonies 
by the high conmiissioner of South Africa (which office is held by 
the Union's governor general) through resident commissioners. Na- 
tive chiefs exercise jurisdiction according to native law in all civil 
actions between natives, subject to a final appeal to the resident com- 
missioner. 

AREA AND POPULATION. 

The area and population of these Provinces and territories are as 
follows : 





Area. 


Population. 


Divisions. 


Euro- 
peans.a 


Indians, 


Natives, 

or 
colored. & 


Total. 


UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. 

Cape Province 


Sq. miles. 

276,995 

110.426 

35,290 

50,389 


582,377 

420,562 

98, 114 

175,189 


6,606 

10,048 

133,031 

106 


1,975,982 

1,265,602 

962,898 

352,879 


2,564,965 


Transvaal Province 


1,686,212 


Natal Province > .. 


1,194,043 


Orange Free State Province 


528, 174 






Total 


473, 100 


1,276,242 


149,791 


4,547,361 


5,973,394 






PEOTECTOEATES. 

Bechuanaland 


275,000 

10,293 

6,536 


1,692 
1,396 
1,083 




123,658 

403, 111 

98,876 


125,350 


Basutoland 


404,507 


Swaziland 


99,959 






Total 


29], 829 


4,171 


(*=) 


625,645 


629,810 






Grand total 


764,929 


1,280,413 


149, 791 


5,173,006 


6,603,210 







a Includes all whites, whether bom in South Africa or abroad. 

6 Includes native African races and all colored people other than Indians. 

c Statistics showing Indian population, separate from natives, are not available. 



10 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

The area, including that of Rhodesia (438,575 square miles) , which 
is dealt with elsewhere, is about equal to that of the States lying east 
of the Mississippi River, with the addition of Texas, Louisiana, and 
Arkansas. It is nearly ten times the size of the United Kingdom. 
Cape Province has a greater area than the other three Provinces of the 
Union combined. It is two and one-half times as large as the Trans- 
vaal, nearly eight times as large as Natal, and five and one-half times 
as large as Orange Free State. 

The country is rather sparsely populated, and the total population 
is less than that of Pennsylvania. The most populous centers of 
South Africa are the southwestern part of Cape Province, the coastal 
districts of eastern Cape Province contiguous to Port Elizabeth and 
East London, the mining areas of Johannesburg and Pretoria, the 
territory contiguous to Durban and Pietermaritzburg, and Basuto- 
land. As a general rule, all the areas near the coast are fairly well 
populated. Bloemfontein and Kimberley have fairly large popu- 
lations, but this condition is restricted to these two cities alone, the 
density of the adjacent territory being much less. 

In the Union of South Africa there are only 12.63 persons to the 
square mile, and in the native protectorates (as a whole) 2.16 persons. 
In Basutoland the number of natives per square mile is close to 40, 
making it the most densely populated part of South Africa. Euro- 
peans make up less than 20 per cent of the total population, and 
it is estimated that 60 per cent of these are descended from the 
original Dutch and French settlers, of whom the former were the 
more numerous. The Indian population is confined chiefly to Natal. 
Most of the Europeans in the country, other than Dutch, are English, 
Jews, Germans, and Greeks. The population of the Union increased 
by 797,570, or 15.41 per cent, between the years 1904 and 1911, but 
638,134 represented the increase in the native or colored population 
(including Indians) and the increase of Europeans was only 159,436. 

The lack of sufficient population to develop the countr}^ along 
agricultural and industrial lines is one of the most serious problems 
confronting South Africa to-day. European immigration is opposed 
by one of the strongest political parties, and the natural increase is 
too small to permit rapid exploitation of the country's magnificent 
agricultural and mineral resources. 

CLIMATE IN GENERAL. 

The climate of South Africa is generally cooler than that usually 
found at a similar latitude in the Northern Hemisphere, especially 
when compared with the climate of Europe and America. This is 
chiefly due to the great extent of ocean to the south of the continent 
and the relati^^ely small area of the country, which permits the pre- 
vailing summer winds from the southeast to pass directly to the land 
from the cold regions of the Atlantic seas. In Cape Town and along 
the west coast it is colder than on the east coast, because the former 
part of South Africa is swept by the cold Antarctic current, whereas 
in Durban and on the east coast the temperature is generally much 
higher because of its being washed by the warm Mozambique current 
from the Indian Ocean. Further inland the climatic conditions of 
the coast are largely modified by the great increase in elevation. 



MARKETS IX SOUTH AFRICA. 11 

A far more equable temperature is experienced in the coastal dis- 
tricts (where the mean daily range for the year between maximum 
and minim^mi readings is only 15J° F.) than on the upper plains of 
the interior. At Kimberley and Bloemfontein the daily range is 
nearly double that figure. On the east coast, at Durban, the mean 
maximum for the hottest month reaches only 84.5°, and on the west 
coast at Cape Town 81.1°, whereas at Kimberley it is over 1)3°. 

The mean minimums for the coldest months are 52.3° for Durban, 
46° for Cape Town, and 37.6° for Kimberley. The extreme heat 
of the summer, however, is very severely felt along the coast, on 
account of the quantity of moisture contained in the atmosphere. 

The extremes of shade temperature recorded are 125° F. at Tembu- 
land, on the east coast between East London and Durban, and 60° F. 
at Palmietfontein. in the northeast of Cape Province at an altitude 
of 4,500 feet. In Graaf Reinet, on one day in the summer of 1916, 
the thermometer registered 109° in the shade. In some cases pears 
were literally baked on the trees and a number of fowls died from 
the intense heat. 

The air is very dry on the highlands, and the heat, therefore, is 
not so oppressive. The warmer parts of South Africa have a climate 
ver}^ similar to that of Louisiana. Frosts of sufficient severity to 
freeze standing water are practically unknown along the coast, but 
in the interior they occur somewhat frequently, more especially from 
May to the middle of September. Snow is of infrequent occurrence 
and is usually confined to the mountainous districts. On the flats 
along the coast it is very rarely met, and its infrequency over the 
highlands is indicated by the fact that in only 11 out of 57 years 
has it been recorded in the Transvaal Province. 

One of the disagreeable features in the climate of the Union is the 
liabilit}^ of the interior to long periods of drought when the spring 
rains fail. Such a drought may be intensified by a deficiency in the 
rainfall of the preceding autumn. The drought prevailing during 
the 3^ears 1915 and 1916 in the northern and midland districts of 
Cape Province was really the most severe experienced in the country 
since 1881. The land in those regions was black with drought; the 
soil was laid completely bare and millions of sheep and cattle 
perished. 

Another undesirable feature of the climate of South Africa is 
hail. The worst hailstorms usually fall in the months of November 
and December. On December 16, 1909, hailstones weighing 4 J 
ounces were reported from Germiston, and considerable damage was 
done to crops in the districts of Bethal, Ermelo, Standerton. and 
others in the Transvaal Province. It is a fortunate fact, however, 
that South African hailstorms are usually confined to a compara- 
tively narrow strip, so that not all of any farm is damaged, and as 
a rule the same, farm is rarely visited by hail two years in succession. 
There are, however, " hail belts " in which these hailstorms api)ear 
to recur almost yearly. 

Records of the sunshine for nine complete seasons have been ob- 
tained at the observatory in Johannesburg. The data thus compiled 
show that South Africa is the sininiest region in the world. In 
Europe the annual hours of sunshine are at a minimum in the north 
of Scotland, with 1,150 hours, and at a maximum in Madrid, with 



12 



AGKICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



2,099 hours. In Johannesburg the average for nine seasons is 3,205. 
The number of days without sunshine in Johannesburg averages 
about three in a year. Sunstroke, in spite of this, is practically un- 
known in South Africa, and the farmer can work out of doors 
without inconvenience all the year round. 

The following table shows the shade temperatures prevailing in 
various parts of South Africa during the middle of summer and 
winter (January and July, respectively) : 



Places. 



Cape Town 

Port Elizabeth... 

Graaf Retaet 

Grahamstown 

Queenstown 

Kimberley 

Bloemfontein 

Pietermarit zburg. 
Durban 



Distance 
from 
coast. 



Milea. 



123 
27 
105 
340 
290 
41 



Alti- 
tude. 



Feet. 
40 

181 
2,463 
1,769 
3,544 
4,012 
4,568 
2,218 

260 



January. 



Mean 
maxi- 
mum. 



op 

81.1 

75.7 
87.8 
79.2 
83.2 
93.2 
86.6 



t.5 



Mean 
mini- 
xmxm 



° F. 

60. i 

63.9 

58.1 

57 

58.1 

62.9 

59 



68.2 



Ab- 
solute 
maxi- 
mum. 



° F. 
101.8 

86.8 
101.2 
101 

99.6 
102 

94.7 

91 

89.3 



Ab- 
solute 
mini- 
mum. 



°F. 

51 

56.4 

46 

50.4 

46.8 

56.1 

49.9 

56 

62.5 



July. 



Mean 
maxi- 
mtmi. 



°F. 

62.1 

66.5 

67 

63.1 

64 

66.4 

64.4 



74.9 



Mean 
mini- 
mum. 



°F. 

46 

48.7 

36.9 

44.3 

36 

37.6 

29.2 



52.3 



Ab- 
solute 
maxi- 
mum. 



° F. 
73.3 

78.3 

77.3 

74.9 

73 

75.5 

72.5 

78.2 

83.5 



Ab- 
solute 
mioi- 
mum. 



'F. 
35.8 
41.5 
25. 5 
36 
22.8 
27.6 
20.7 
33:7 
42.3 



SEASONS AND TIME. 

It must be carefully borne in mind that the seasons in the Southern 
Hemisphere are the reverse of those in the northern latitudes. Spring 
in South Africa occurs from September to November, summer from 
December to February, autumn from March to May, and winter from 
June to August. 

^oon in South Africa corresponds to 5.04 a. m. in New York. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

There are practically four elevated plateaus in South Africa — ^the 
Coast Plateau, with an average elevation of 500 to 600 feet, varying 
in width from 50 miles in Southwest Africa to 3 miles, or even less, 
in the southeast of Cape Province ; the Southern Karroo, a narrow 
strip of from 15 to 20 miles, with an altitude of about 1,500 feet; the 
Central Karroo, at a height of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet; and the 
Northern Karroo, at 4,000 feet, rising to 6,000 feet in the east. The 
plateaus are separated by steep escarpments, rising to a considerable 
height above them and rendering their modifying influence on the 
climate very potent. Detailed topographical information is given 
elsewhere in this report, where the climatic aspects of the various 
Provinces of the Union are reviewed. 

DESCRIPTION OF CAPE PROVINCE. 

The Coast Plateau forms the first of the four steps which, in gen- 
eral^ characterize the topography of South Africa and of the Cape 
Province in particular. It is of an irregular width, varying from a 
few miles to 50 and rising from sea level to an altitude of some 600 
feet. The chief characteristics of this Coast Plateau are warmth and 



MAKKETS IN SOUTH ATRICA. 13 

moisture. The average rainfall on the whole of the districts near 
Cape Town is 40 inches, but it varies very considerably in places only 
a few miles distant ; thus, the rainfall at Bishopscourt averages 54.63 
inches, and at the Town Hall, Cape Town, 5 miles away, 25.43 inches 
per annum. Immediately east of Cape Town, and as far as the dis- 
trict of Knysna, east of George, there is a decrease of rainfall to 
from 15 to 20 inches. The rainfall around Knysna and George 
becomes more abundant, the average being 40 inches. This well- 
watered strip, which is only a few miles in width, extends to within 
a few miles of Port Elizabeth, in which city the rainfall is only 21 
inches. 

The distribution of the rainfall varies considerably in different 
seasons, but the greater part of the coast line of Cape Province re- 
ceives its rains during the winter months, from April to September. 
This is particularly the case in the western districts. The coast lands 
east of Port Elizabeth, however, differ in that respect. With Pondo- 
land, Natal, and other parts of South Africa, they obtain most rain 
in the summer; that is to say, during the same period in which the 
greatest rainfall is expected in Kimberley and in the Transvaal and 
Orange Free State Provinces, where the winters, as a rule, are bright 
and clear. The three hottest months are January, February, and 
March, which are the driest around Cape Town, Ceres, and adjoin- 
ing districts. 

The principal towns on the Coast Plateau are: By the sea — Cape 
Town, Mossel Bay, George, Port Elizabeth, Port Alfred, and East 
London. Inland — Malmesbury, 352 feet; Wellington, 384 feet; 
Paarl, 405 feet; Stellenbosch, 364 feet; Caledon, 800 feet; Swellen- 
dam, 500 feet; Riversdale, 200 feet; George, 620 feet; Humansdorp, 
502 feet ; and Uitenhage, 169 feet. 

The word " Karroo" occurs frequently in anything connected with 
the Union of South Africa. This name is locally applied to the land 
occupied by Cape Province with the exception of the Coast Plateau 
and the uplands along its eastern extremit}^ It is distinguished as 
Southern, Central, and Northern Karroo, according to situation. 
The areas of the Karroo are characterized by the existence of an 
aromatic little grey shrub, which stands 8 to 10 inches high, with 
roots penetrating several feet below the surface. This shrub (or 
bush, as it is more often called) constitutes the chief value of this e^ 
tensive area of land, except where irrigation is resorted to. 

In appearance this bush is an unpromising-looking vegetable, but 
it provides sustenance for millions of sheep and goats even in the 
driest seasons, although it may be burnt by the sun into little more 
than a dry bunch of twigs; and, provided the water in the farmers' 
dams holds out, the flocks and herds can obtain sufficient nourish- 
ment from the bushes at all times. When the spring rains come 
these bushes respond more quickly to the influence of the moisture 
than perhaps any other class of vegetation. What before the rains 
were immense waste lands, with hardly any vegetable life upon them, 
burst out even in the most desert-like parts of the Karroo into end- 
less stretches of green bushes, every weed and bush throwing up its 
spike of flowers and struggling hard, during the short time permitted, 
to blossom and mature its seed. Few deserts have a more desolate 
appearance than the Karroo districts in summer. Verdure is en- 
tirely lacking, the numerous ^^ ater gullies are nearly always dry, 



14 AGRICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

and the low ranges of ironstone seem to reflect the heat as from a 
mirror. The Karroo has one of the most fruitful soils in the world, 
and only needs water to carry the heaviest crops of grass, wheat, or 
fruit. Where the land is irrigated it is possible to step across a low 
fence and have one foot in a parched desert, where the sand blisters 
the skin, and the other in an orchard, where the peach trees are break- 
ing down with fruit and the maize flowers are rustling in the wind 
12 feet above the ground. 

The Southern Karroo is situated north of the Coast Plateau. 
From the Coast Plateau the ground rises more or less abruptly in 
the second plateau formed by the Southern Karroo. 

To the west the rise is gradual through the fertile Goudini Val- 
ley, where Worcester (794 feet) and Eobertson (TOO feet) are sit- 
uated. Farther east in the Oudtshoorn Valley and on the many hills 
to the east, the vegetation and climate partake more of the arid 
Karroo character. The towns of this second plateau are Montagu 
(750 feet), Ladismith (1,860 feet), Oudtshoorn (1,014 feet), and 
Uniondale (2,200 feet). In comparing the Southern Karroo climate 
with that of the Coast Plateau a very great change is noticeable. The 
rainfall, except on the mountain slopes, is much smaller and the range 
of temperature is somewhat greater. 

The Great, or Central, Karroo, extending east and west for a dis- 
tance of about 350 miles, at an elevation of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet 
above the sea, is said to exceed 100,000 square miles in extent — ^that 
is, more than one-third the total area of Cape Province. This ele- 
vation forms the third of the four steps mentioned. 

The winters are bright and clear, the nights cold, with the ther- 
mometer below the freezing point. The mountain tops are often 
covered with snow, which, however, never lies long on the plain itself. 
The mean daily range of temperature is very great — about 27° F. 
The hottest month is January, with a mean maximum of 87° F., and 
the coldest is July, with a mean minimum of 36° F. 

The summer heat is not so oppressive as it would be if the air were 
not so intensely dry. The rainfall is scanty, and it occurs princi- 
pally in the summer. Westward of Beaufort West, however, the 
country can be said to lie within the zone of the winter rains. The 
average annual rainfall in the Central Karroo is about 10 inches in 
the west, increasing to 18 inches in the east. 

The principal towns in this section are Prince Albert (2,120 feet), 
Beaufort West (2,792 feet), Aberdeen (2,850 feet), Willowmore 
(2,769 feet), Graaf Eeinet (2,463 feet), Somerset East (2,304 feet), 
and Cradock (2,956.feet). 

The fourth step in the topography of the Cape Province is formed 
by the Northern Plateau, or Karroo, stretching northward to the 
Orange Eiver, still farther inland and at an elevation of from 2,800 
to 6,000 feet above sea level. The Orange River itself is merely a 
political boundary. 

The climate of the interior plains of South Africa, when the alti- 
tude of 4,000 feet is reached, is remarkably uniform. It can not be 
said that in this section of the Cape Province there is any marked 
division of the year into spring, summer, autumn, and winter ; rather 
it may be described as a long summer and a long winter. The former 
begins rather suddenly — about September — increases until January, 
and then decreases until the end of April, while the latter may be 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 15 

said to last from the end of April until September. This plateau is 
exceedingly dry, some parts in the west averaging as little as 2 
inches of rain in the year, the average for the whole of this plateau 
being 10 inches, of which in the west the greater part falls in violent 
summer thunderstorms. Unfortunately only a small portion of 
this amount of rainfall, slight as it is, is available for agricultural 
purposes, the greater part running off the sun-baked soil into the 
deep gullies, which hurry off the much-needed water to the sea. 
Boring experiments, however, have proved that considerable quan- 
tities of water exist at small depths below the surface. 

In the western districts agriculture on a limited scale only is pur- 
sued in the neighborhood of the villages, the chief industry being 
cattle and sheep. Twenty acres of land are required to support a 
sheep, but with irrigation 216 bushels of wheat have been harvested 
from 1 bushel of seed. 

The eastern portions of this plateau are the best watered, the rain- 
fall increasing to 18 inches. They are also the most verdant and 
the least destitute of larger vegetation. The towns in this region are 
Tarkastad, lying in open ground, with a rainfall of 18 inches; Mid- 
dleburg, Aliwal North, Burghersdorp, Dordrecht, and Barkly East 
(5,831 feet), the last-named being the highest town in Cape Colony. 

The central portion of this plateau includes the towns of Hanover 
(4,400 feet), Colesberg (4,373 feet), Richmond (4,500 feet), Victoria 
West (4,614 feet), and Carnarvon (4,111 feet). 

The neighborhood of these central towns partakes chiefly of the 
arid Karroo character, the rainfall being less than in the eastern dis- 
tricts, although in other respects the climate is similar. 

The country toward Kimberley is practically a continuation of the 
northern plateaus of the Cape Province. In the extreme east of Cape 
Province, from Port Elizabeth to the Natal border, behind the Coast 
Plateau, which extends over the entire seacoast of South Africa, is 
what is called the Eastern Plateau. 

This can be designated as the hinterland of East London and 
partly that of Port Elizabeth. The climate is fairly equable and the 
rainfall 30 inches, which is more distributed throughout the entire 
12 months of the year than is the case elsewhere in South Africa. 
The towns in this section are Fort Beaufort (1,395 feet), Alice 
(1,720 feet), Grahamstown (1,769 feet). King Williams Town (1,275 
feet), and Bedford (1,275 feet). Many of these are pleasantly sit- 
uated in hilly country, plentifully watered and interspersed with 
stretches of forest. Higher, on what may be described as the upper 
edge of the Eastern Plateau, is Queenstown (3,544 feet), a fine, 
healthful, and important agricultural center. 

East of the portion of the Cape Province just described is situated 
what at times is called Kaffraria and at others the Transkei Terri- 
tories. An increase in humidity is noted here and the country par- 
takes more of the general climate of Natal, as also in respect to rain- 
fall, which is greater than anywhere in the Cape Province, except 
at the southwest corner of that Province contiguous to Cape Town. 

AGRICULTURAL, PASTORAL, AND MINERAL RESOURCES. 

The Cape Province is very rich in farming land, and ranks first 
among the four Provinces in the growing of wheat, oats, hay, bar- 



16 AGRICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

ley, rye, peas, beans, and potatoes. Tobacco, alfalfa, grapes, and 
fruits are other important products. 

One of the most valuable industries of the Province is the raisino- 
of ostriches, the feathers from which have constituted one of the 
principal exports of the country. This industry flourishes best in 
the southern part of the Province, between Cape Town and Port 
Elizabeth, with Oudtshoorn as the chief center. Prior to the de- 
pression suffered by the industry during the past three years,. ostrich 
farming was being extended to many other parts of Cape Province. 
South Africa supplies about 85 per cent of the world's ostrich- 
feather requirements. Stock raising is engaged in extensively in 
every district of this Province, sheep growing being the most im- 
portant branch of the industry. The raising of angora goats is 
closely confined to its eastern districts. Of 16,306,203 pounds of 
mohair shipped from the Union in 1915, 13,352,046 pounds were 
shipped from Port Elizabeth and 1,985,374 pounds from East 
London. 

The products of the land of Cape Province are as follows : South- 
west — Wool, hides and skins, wheat, oats, barley, fruit, wine, and 
tobacco. Northwest — Wool, hides and skins, wheat, and other small 
cereals. North (toward Kimberley) — Wool, alfalfa, horses, mohair. 
Central (near the coast) — Tobacco, ostrich feathers, fruit, alfalfa, 
maize, wheat. Southeast — Maize, wheat, fruit, feathers, alfalfa, wool 
and mohair, cattle, and dairy products. Northeast — Maize, wheat, 
cattle, wool, mohair, hides and skins, alfalfa, and dairy products. 

Cape Province ranks second among the Provinces of the Union in 
the output of mineral products. This is largely due to the fact that 
Kimberley, with its famous diamond mines, is situated within its 
boundaries. In the production of copper it holds first rank, with 
Transvaal Province a close rival. Asbestos is found in various parts 
of this Province. The total production of the mines is under $20,- 
000,000, approximately, per annum. 

Cape Province looks primarily to its pastoral and agricultural re- 
sources for its support and future development, and, with irrigation 
and closer settlement, which are increasingly resorted to, the pro- 
duction of its soil can be enormously increased. 

PRINCIPAL CITIES. 
CAPE TOWN. 

Cape Town, with a population of 146,000, is the largest city in the 
Province and is the legislative capital of the Union. The trade of 
this port, according to the official trade returns, ranked second in 
1915, with total imports and exports amounting to $61,018,946, as 
compared with $77,491,849 for Durban. If the figures of the gold 
exports, which are at |)resent kept from the public, were included, 
they would probably give Cape Town the first place among South 
African ports in the value of its trade, inasmuch as the bulk of the 
gold shipments of the Transvaal are made through Cape Town. 

In 1915, 1,210 vessels entered the port and discharged 702,305 tons 
of cargo, and 1,219 vessels cleared with 421,792 tons of cargo. There 
is a splendid harbor at Cape Town, and a breakwater 3,640 feet long 



MAKKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 17 

provides safe anchorage in the bay. Good coaling and crainage 
facilities are provided. 

The city itself is beautifully situated on the bay, with Table Moun- 
tain, over 3,500 feet high, in the background. The attractive sur- 
roundings and excellent climate make it one of the finest residential 
cities of South Africa. The population is about equally divided be- 
tween Europeans, or whites, and natives, or mixed colored. A re- 
markable development in Cape Town in recent years has been the 
opening up of the outskirts by electric street cars and railways, all 
the coaches being of American manufacture. The city is the dis- 
tributing center for a large volume of trade from the eastern and 
northern sections of the Province and is the terminus of the railway 
lines from Rhodesia, Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal. 
With the exception of gold and diamonds, however, most of the ex- 
ports from the other Provinces of the Union are shipped from Dur- 
ban, in Natal, and East London and Port Elizabeth, in Cape Prov- 
ince. 

American manufacturers of agricultural machinery, generally 
speaking, have in the past found Cape Town the most difficult city in 
South Africa in which to establish business relations. It holds un- 
disputed first rank among the farm-machinery selling centers of 
South Africa in the volume of business in harvesting machinery, be- 
cause of the fact that the principal wheat-growing districts of the 
Union are contiguous to Cape Town, and it is admitted that the 
United States supplies at least 75 per cent of the trade in that class of 
goods. Outside of harvesting machinery, and particularly in connec- 
tion with plows, the trade has long been accustomed to certain lines 
made in England and Germany, and until recently it has been impos- 
sible for American manufacturers to win a fair share of that trade. 
Before the war 75 per cent of the implements sold by Germany to 
South Africa were purchased by Cape Town 'merchants. 

POKT ELIZABETH. 

Port Elizabeth, 428 miles by sea from Cape Town, is the second 
port of importance (known as Algoa Bay) in Cape Province. It has 
a population of 30,676, of whom 18,216 are white. There is no quay 
or pier, and vessels anchor in the bay ; cargo and passengers are em- 
barked and disembarked by means of tugs and lighters, which are 
controlled by the Government. There are no harbor or light dues. 
The charges for landing cargo at the jetty vary from Is. 6d. (36.5 
cents) to 4s. (97.3 cents) per ton. The terminal facilities permit the 
loading of goods in transit directly to the railway cars. Port Eliza- 
beth has excellent railway connections with Orange Free State and 
Transvaal Provinces, and the heavy carrying trade has contributed 
largely to its commercial importance. It is also a large distributing 
center for the eastern parts of Cape Province, Basutoland, and 
Orange Free State. 

Port Elizabeth is perhaps most noted as the largest ostrich-feather 
market in the world. Feathers are collected from all the surrounding 
districts and brought to Port Elizabeth, where they are sold on the 
public market by auction, the sales taking place, in ordinary times, 

1276°— 17— No. 146 2 



18 AGRICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

on every Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday. Since the beginning of 
the war ostrich- feather sales are held less frequently. Large ship- 
ments of wool, mohair, and hides and skins also leave Port Elizabeth. 

The total cargo landed at Port Elizabeth during 1915 amounted to 
260,859 tons, and the shipments were 113,507 tons. There has been 
a decided falling off in the volume of trade handled by this port, 
owing to the difficulties experienced by the ostrich-feather farmers 
and nearly three continuous years of very severe drought in many 
parts of its hinterland. In 1912 the cargo landed amounted to 
507,263 tons and the shipments to 128,512 tons. Vessels to the num- 
ber of 368 entered and cleared the port during 1915. 

Port Elizabeth ranked fourth in 1915 among the trade centers of 
the Union in the value of its importations of agricultural machinery 
and implements, the amount being $210,432.® From the viewpoint of 
the American manufacturer, however (with the exception of har- 
vesting machinery), it is conceded to have more importance than 
Cape Town as a purchaser of this class of goods. 

While the farming districts around Port Elizabeth have kept pace 
with the most progressive districts of South Africa as regards agri- 
cultural development, many parts of its vast hinterland have had to 
contend with conditions retarding their progress in that direction. 
Chief among these are the droughts that have prevailed for the last 
five years and the comparatively easy profits to be obtained from 
wool growing and ostrich farming. Since the depreciation in the 
value of ostrich feathers diversified farming has received a marked 
impetus, and a distinct improvement in the situation will most prob- 
ably be noted in the next few years. 

Irrigation works and closer settlement are much talked about, and 
several important schemes along, these lines are being vigorously 
prosecuted. The chief reason why Port Elizabeth is looked upon 
as a more promising market for American farm machinery than 
Cape Town is that its merchants send their travelers through a much 
wider territory, which includes the northwest of Cape Province, the 
Orange Free State, the Transvaal, and Rhodesia. 

EAST LONDON. 

East London, 131 miles northeast of Port Elizabeth, is anothei 
port in Cape Province that is rapidly increasing in importance, 
owing not only to the large transit trade it handles but also to the 
fact that it is the port of a rich hinterland, including the Transkei 
Territories, with their many thousands of square miles of fertile, 
well-watered soil and ample population. Stock raising is an im- 
portant industry, and some of the districts are far-famed as most 
excellently suited for the production of good breeding stock. The 
exports of wool from this port in 1915 (64,109,810 pounds) exceeded 
those of any other South African port, and this position has been 
maintained for several years. Hides and skins and mohair are also 
important items of trade. 

<» Editor's Note. — According to a report by Consul E. A. Wakefield, received as this 
monograph was going to press, the imports at Port Elizabeth under the single heading of 
"Agricultural implements " amounted to $345,380 in 1916 as against $59,135 in the pre- 
ceding year. These figures apparently do not cover certain articles of machinery included 
by Commercial Agent Horns. 



MARKETS IlN SOUTH AFRICA. 19 

East London has an advantage over Port Elizabeth in possessing 
a fairly good harbor, with wharves and docking facilities. Daring 
1915, 381 vessels entered the port, discharging 195,340 tons of cargo, 
and 379 vessels cleared with 154,564 tons. 

The town is well situated on the eastern bank of the Bujffalo Eiver, 
which enters the sea at this point. The population in 1911 was 
21,277, of whom 12,552 were white. 

While according to statistics East London ranks third among the 
South African ports as regards the volume of its importations of 
agricultural machinery and implements — $277,750 in 1915 "" — it is un- 
doubtedly of greater importance to our manufacturers of this class 
of goods, except those of harvesting machinery, than Cape Town. 
What for some years has been considered the largest firm importing 
American farm tools has its head office in this city. 

MOSSEL BAY, 

Mossel Bay is the only other port in Cape Province that is a port 
of call for mail steamers. It lies between Cape Town and Port Eliza- 
beth, 242 miles by sea from the former and 186 miles from the latter. 
In August, 1913, it was connected by rail with Port Elizabeth and 
with Oudtshoorn, and as the latter is one of the best agricultural 
and ostrich-producing districts of the Union, Mossel Bay is likely 
in time to become an important port and to Jtiandle part of the trade 
that formerly went to Port Elizabeth. There is also railway con- 
nection with Cape Town, the distance being 318 miles. The town 
is small, having a population of 4,206, of whom about 40 per cent 
are white. 

INTERIOR TOWNS. 

Oudtshoorn is generally considered the most important interior 
town of Cape Province. It has a population of 12,000, 75 per cent 
being white (mainly Dutch). The highest prices obtained for South 
African agricultural land were paid in this district, as much as $3,350 
per morgen (2.11 acres) being paid for a small parcel of irrigated 
land in the neighborhood of this town. 

Other interior centers of trade are Grahamstown, King Williams 
Town, Cradock, Graaf Reinet, Queenstown, and Uitenhage, in the 
east; Calvinia, Carnarvon, Malmesbury, ond Piquetberg, in the 
west ; and Worcester in the south, 109 miles from Cape Town. Kim- 
berley, in the north, is famous for the richest diamond mines in the 
world. The total output of diamonds from Cape Province in 1913 
was 2,461.535 carats, valued at $34,043,291. 

THE TRANSKEIAN TERRITORIES. 

The Transkeian Territories, which are often designated under the 
name of Kaffraria, comprise the native territories of Griqualand 
East, Tembuland, and Pondoland, which were finally annexed by 

« Editor's Note. — According to a report by Consul E. A. Wakefield, received as this 
monograph was going to press, the imports at East London under the single heading of 
"Agricultural implements " amounted to $439:158 in 1916 as against $231,203 in the pre- 
ceding year. These figures apparently do not cover certain articles of machinery included 
by Commercial Agent Homs. 



20 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

the Cape Colony in 1894. They cover an area of about 22,000 
square miles, with a population of 16,777 whites and 817,867 na- 
tives, and are situated in the extreme east of Cape Province, con- 
tiguous to the Natal border. 

Griqualand East lies at an altitude of about 4,000 feet and is 
eminently suited for European occupation. Pondoland is a low 
country and, being warmer, is preferred by the natives. The soil 
being fertile and the rainfall generous, Griqualand East produces 
large crops of cereals and other products and feeds large quantities 
of stock. There are numerous first-class mixed farms owned by 
progressive British farmers in the districts of Mount Currie, Mata- 
tiele, Mount Fletcher, Maclear, and Umzimkulu. The land else- 
where is generally held by the natives on the communistic principle, 
but their custom of heaping up all their wealth in the shape of 
cattle has led to the overstocking of their lands, raising a problem 
difficult of solution. 

These territories are recognized as among the best in South Africa 
for general agriculture, and as the construction of railways proceeds 
and fencing is more generally adopted there is no doubt that the 
great natural resources of the country will rapidly develop. 

The railway from Natal at present reaches the town of Franklin, 
and that from the Cape the town of Maclear. The 143 miles of line 
still to be constructed betwe/cn these two towns will be completed 
shortly. More intense cujtivation of the land is practiced by the Euro- 
pean farmers of these territories than is the case elsewhere. in South 
Africa, and the subdivision of farms is rapidly adding to the value 
of the land. The stock during the winter is fed with the crops grown 
in the summer, and some of the best beef and mutton in South Africa 
are produced. There are no fewer than 17 cheese factories, which for 
the past two years have hardly been able to supply the demands made 
upon them. The district of Matatiele alone is said to send from 5,000 
to 10,000 head of cattle to Durban ever}^ year. There are immense 
irrigation possibilities in certain of the rivers, and thousands of 
acres of rich land could be brought under irrigation. Labor is cheap 
as compared with other parts of South Africa, $3.75 to $5 per month 
and maize meal being the average pay for natives. Profitable land 
is said to be still obtainable at $7.50 to $10 per acre. 

DESCRIPTION OF NATAL. 

The climate of Natal is very similar to that of the eastern districts 
of Cape Province, but the coast lands are decidedly warmer. The 
rainfall at Durban averages 39 inches and at Pietermaritzburg 38 
inches, the greatest part of which falls during the summer. The 
rainfall during May, June, and July is very small. 

The ground rises rapidly from the sea in a succession of hills and 
ridges, in the valleys of which tropical produce, chiefly sugar, is suc- 
cessfully grown. Pietermaritzburg, only 40 miles distant from the 
sea, lies at an altitude of 2,218 feet. North and west of that city the 
country is still broken in hills and valleys. The temperature falls as 
one approaches the heights, and where the country is level or inclosed 
the heat would be oppressive were it not for the tempering influence 
of sudden thunderstorms which are very frequent in Natal during the 
summer. For periods of several weeks in certain districts these 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. . 21 

storms occur daily, almost Avithout interruption, about the same time 
in the afternoon. 

Zululand, which was incorporated with Natal in 1897, has the cli- 
mate of a healthful subtropical country. The higher part of the 
country lies at an elevation of about 2,000 feet and is very productive. 
It is well watered and, in most respects, similar to the best districts of 
Natal itself. Sugar-cane cultivation has become a very remunerative 
industry, the country being better adapted for that crop, in the opin- 
ion of many, than most sections of Natal, where it is grown. 

Natal is the most densely populated Province of the Union, having 
33.83 inhabitants to the square mile. In area it is the smallest of the 
four Provinces. It is also one of the richest Provinces of the Union 
from an agricultural standpoint, the production of sugar, which in 
1915 exceeded 110,000 tons, aiding it to hold that position. The cli- 
mate is more tropical than that of the Cape Province. Dairying has 
perhaps made more progress in Natal than in any of the other Prov- 
inces. Maize is also grown on a large scale, and Natal, in pre-Union 
days, initiated, and for several years led in, the exportation of this 
cereal to foreign countries. Wheat, oats, and the other small cereals 
are not grown to any great extent. The climate and the pastures of 
many districts are exceptionally well adapted for stock raising, but 
the ravages of the East Coast fever have in the past interfered wdth 
the greater expansion of that industry. Wattle bark is grown exten- 
sively, that being a product almost entirely confined to this Province 
and the extreme northeastern districts of Cape Province. Coal in 
great abundance is found in various parts of Natal, and this industry 
has already attained considerable importance. No other mineral is 
mined in Natal at present. The whaling industry is also of impor- 
tance, the annual average catch being at the rate of 1,000 whales. 

There are numerous smaller industries in Natal, such as breweries, 
wagon and carriage works, asbestos manufacturing, wicker and 
wooden furniture, boots, shoes, and confectionery. In the establish- 
ment of these industries Natal has shown greater enterprise than the 
other Provinces of the Union. 

Along the coast of Natal and Zululand the chief crops under culti- 
vation are sugar, tea, wattle bark, and tropical fruits ; farther inland, 
maize, wattle bark, and alfalfa. Experiments carried out in Zulu- 
land have proved that areas of that territory are suitable for the 
cultivation of cotton. 

PRINCIPAL CITIES. 

Durban, w^hich port is known as Port Natal and is the only one in 
the Province at which larger vessels call, is the chief city of Natal. 
It is 812 miles from Cape Town, 384 from Port Elizabeth, 253 from 
East London, and 295 from Lourengo Marques, in Portuguese East 
Africa. A systen; of railways connects Durban with the principal 
cities of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, for which it is the 
chief port. At present it is likely that 50 per cent of the total imports 
into the Transvaal enter via Durban. 

During 1915, 988 vessels entered Durban and discharged 680,364 
tons of cargo, and 980 steamers cleared with 1,608,523 tons of cargo — 
a far greater tonnage of exports than that handled by all the other 
South African ports combined, the share of the total being nearly 69 



22 ^ AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

per cent. The port derives additional importance from the fact that 
it is the terminus of several lines of vessels trading between South 
Africa and India, as well as for the steamers plying along the East 
Coast of Africa, and is a port of call for several lines from England 
to Australia. 

Durban has an excellent, well-sheltered harbor, with a narrow 
entrance, and a breakwater extending more than 2,000 feet into the 
sea. The inner basin covers about T^ square miles and is provided 
with 12,800 feet of wharves and quayage. The wharves are equipped 
with shfeds of a total capacity of 100,000 tons, coaling appliances 
capable of loading 400 tons an hour, and 50 hydraulic, steam, and 
electric cranes of various capacities up to 50 tons. 

The town itself and its suburbs are among the most beautiful in 
South Africa and particularly pleasant to live in, except during the 
summer months — October to March — when the climate is very hot. 
The total population is 72,512, of whom 33,271 are European, 18,662 
natives, and 20,579 Asiatics and other colored persons, chiefly Indians. 

The imports of agricultural machinery and implements through 
the port of Durban in 1915 were valued at $712,855, more than twice 
the value imported through any other South African port.'^ Apart 
from the undoubted importance of Durban as the chief distributing 
center for these goods, the fact must also be considered that a large 
percentage of the farm machinery imported by Johannesburg firms 
passes through this port, which indicates the nearness of Durban to 
the principal farm-machinery consuming markets of South Africa. 
Its desirability as a city in which to establish the headquarters for 
resident representatives of American manufacturers of farm ma- 
chinery is therefore readily apparent. All the chief agricultural- 
machinery trading centers of South Africa, except Cape Town, can 
be reached from Durban by either steamer or rail in about 24 hours, 
and the rich agricultural districts of the eastern Transvaal and Orange 
Free State are within even easier access from that city. The only 
argument sometimes advanced against Durban as the South African 
headquarters for representatives of firms overseas is that foreign 
mails arrive two days later than in Cape Town and they have also 
to be mailed two days before this need be done in the latter city. In 
every other respect Durban is widely recognized as the most suitable^ 
as well as the most economical, headquarters for those who must keep 
in touch with the firms purchasing agricultural machinery, and its 
handicap as regards mail facilities is more than offset by its many 
other advantages. 

Pietermaritzburg, 71 miles west of Durban on the main line of 
the railway to the Orange Free State and Transvaal, is the capital 
of Natal and the only other city of importance in the Province. 
It is situated in the highlands 2,218 feet above the sea and has a 
population of 30,000, of whom about half are Europeans. Newcastle, 
Ladysmith, and Vryheid are other trading centers of minor impor- 
tance. 

« Editor's Note. — ^According to a report by Consul William W. Masterson, received as 
this monograph was going to press, the imports at Durban under the single heading of 
"Agricultural implements" amounted to $1,067,413 in 1916 as against $628,663 in the 
preceding year. These figures apparently do not cover certain articles of machinery in- 
cluded by Commercial Agent Homs. They show an important increase in the purchases 
of farming implements. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 23 

DESCRIPTION OF ORANGE FREE STATE. 

Orange Free State Province lies in a broad plateau, 4,000 to 5,000 
feet above sea level. This great plateau, more than 50,000 square 
miles in extent, is almost destitute of trees. The rainfall is mod- 
erate, averaging probably 22 inches per annum, the eastern districts 
being the best watered. The precipitation occurs chiefly during the 
winter months, in the shape of violent thunderstorms. Most of the 
water is rapidly carried away by the deep-cut river beds, which are 
generally 30 to 40 feet below the level of the surrounding country 
and speedily drain all moisture from their vicinity. 

The Orange Free State, according to the 1911 census, has a larger 
area under crops (5.73 per cent of the total) than any of the other 
Provinces of the Union, is the smallest in population, next to the 
smallest in area, and entirely shut in from the sea. Durban, East 
London, and Port Elizabeth are the chief ports serving this Prov- 
ince. The eastern districts are the best for mixed farming, maize 
and wheat (chiefly the fonner) being grown extensively; maize is also 
the crop chiefly cultivated in the other farming districts of the 
Province. The farms are mainly in the hands of the Dutch. Stock 
farming is an important industry, the Orange Free State ranking 
next to Cape Province in the production of wool, mohair, and 
hides and skins. Some of the districts west of Bloemfontein are 
famous as among the best in the Union for the breeding of horses. 
Diamond and coal mines are worked in various parts of this Prov- 
ince, but the total mineral production in 1914 did not exceed 
$5,000,000. 

Bloemfontein, situated near the center of the Orange Free State, 
is the capital city and the chief commercial center of that Prov- 
ince. It has a population of 27,000, about evenly divided between 
Europeans and natives. Other towns of minor importance are 
Kroonstad, Ladybrand, and Harrismith. 

DESCRIPTION OF TRANSVAAL. 

The Transvaal Province lies to the north of the Orange Free 
State, between the Vaal and Limpopo Rivers. The altitude reaches 
0,000 feet around Johannesburg, decreasing in every direction as that 
city is left behind. The entire Transvaal Province, however, lies at 
high altitudes, ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 feet. South of Johannes- 
burg there is an extensive flat, surpassing even that of Orange Free 
State in extent. In the uplands bitter cold is felt during the winter, 
when snoAv occasionally falls, frosty nights being experienced during 
a considerable part of the winter. During the summer the heat is 
sometimes great. The eastern Transvaal is well Avatered, the rainfall 
being from 25 to 35 inches. Toward the west it ranges from 10 to 
25 inches. The rainfall is chiefly obtained in two seasons, one last- 
ing over October, November, and part of December, and the other 
beginning the middle of February and lasting until April. 

The presence of rich mineral deposits within its borders makes this 
bv far the wealthiest Province of the Union. The gold production of 
the Transvaal in 1914 amounted to $173,523,885. The Premier dia- 
mond mine is situated in this Province, and coal mining is also en- 



24 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

gaged in extensively. While no recent statistics are available, it is 
admitted that the agricultural progress of the Transvaal is carried 
on at a faster pace than is the case in any of the other three Provinces 
of the Union. Its southern and eastern districts, adjoining Natal 
and Orange Free State Provinces, are very rich in agricultural re- 
sources. The Transvaal already ranks first in the production of 
maize and second in the production of wheat, barley, and Kafir 
corn. Tobacco is grown more extensively there than elsewhere in 
South Africa. Fruit growing (principally citrus fruits) is an im- 
portant industry, and the output is of excellent quality. Great hopes 
are entertained as to the suitability of certain districts of the Trans- 
vaal for the cultivation of cotton, and a great deal of success has 
already been attained in the cultivation of this crop in the Rusten- 
burg district. In northern Transvaal in particular, as well as 
throughout this Province, stock raising is engaged in extensively. 
There are 11,679 registered farms in the Transvaal, of which about 
one-half are occupied. 

PRINCIPAL CITIES. 

Johannesburg, in the center of the gold fields, is the largest city of 
the Union, and is generally conceded to be the commercial capital 
of British South Africa. It is spread over an area of 80 square 
miles and has a population of 253,510, of whom 134,000 are Euro- 
peans, or whites — this figure representing about four times the 
white population of the next largest city in South Africa. The dis- 
tance to Cape Town is approximately 1,000 miles, to Port Elizabeth 
712 miles, to East London 665 miles, to Durban 482 miles, to Delagoa 
Bay, in Portuguese East Africa, 394 miles, to Bulawayo, in Rho- 
desia, 680 miles. 

The city is built much on the lines of a modern European city, 
with broad streets, numerous six to eight story office buildings, shops 
and apartment houses, excellent hotels, and fine residences in the sub- 
urbs. Nearly 60 miles of street tramway lines are used. Its rapid 
growth in the last 20 years, before which time it was little more 
than a mining camp, has been marvelous. All the principal im- 
porting firms in South Africa maintain large establishments, with 
huge stocks, in Johannesburg, and it is not only the center of a con- 
siderable trade in mining machinery and supplies, but also a dis- 
tributing point for the supply of agricultural requirements for the 
whole of the Province, as also for the north, including Rhodesia. 
It is also an important railway center, from which lines radiate to 
all parts of the Union and to Rhodesia. It is said that the cost of 
necessary commodities in Johannesburg is from 25 to 150 per cent 
higher than in the provincial capitals of Europe, and from 25 to 50 
per cent higher than the average in the United States. The bulk 
of the export trade of Johannesburg and western Transvaal (with 
the exception of minerals) passed through the port of LourenQo 
Marques, in Portuguese East Africa, before the war, but this trade 
has been largely diverted to Durban since the beginning of hostilities, 
despite the fact that LourenQo Marques is 88 miles nearer to Johan- 
nesburg than Durban. 

Pretoria, 45 miles northeast of Johannesburg, is the administrative 
capital of South Africa, and has a population of 48,609, of whom the 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 26 

greater number are Europeans. It is situated in a valley nearly 
5,000 feet above sea level and surrounded by a small range of moun- 
tains. Some very rich farming land is to be found in the environs, 
giving the town considerable commercial importance. The Premier 
diamond mine is only 22 miles from Pretoria. 

There are numerous smaller towns and trading centers in the 
Transvaal, of which Germiston (population 54,000), Krugersdorp 
(53,881), Boksburg (43,472), and Benoni (32,478) are the most 
important, supported b}^ contiguous mining undertakings. Potchef- 
stroom, Middleburg, Barberton, Heidelberg, and Rustenburg are the 
most important from an agricultural viewpoint. 

DESCRIPTION OF NATIVE PROTECTORATES. 

For statistical purposes the native Protectorates in South Africa 
are considered part of the Union of South Africa, and separate fig- 
ures for their trade are not available. 

BECHUANALAND. 

The Bechuanaland Protectorate must not be confused with the 
territory called British Bechuanaland, which is a part of Cape 
Province. This is much the largest of the three Protectorates, but 
a large part of the country is virtually a barren desert. Bechuana- 
land is essentially a pastoral country, and stock raising is the prin- 
cipal industry; cattle thrive everywhere and increase very rapidly. 
The rainfall is too small and uncertain to enable grain to be grown 
with a reasonable prospect of success, but the natives in some of the 
districts plow and sow every year; and, although the crops are 
usually small, occasionally there is a season of generous rains, when 
the harvest (chiefly Kafir corn, millet, and maize) is abundant. The 
Protectorate is inadequately served by railways, the only line travers- 
ing the country passing through the extreme eastern section — ^this 
being the line from Cape Town to Rhodesia, via Kimberley and 
Mafeking. 

The northern plains of Cape Province extend into Bechuanaland. 
Its elevation is from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, and the rainfall in the west 
appears to be about equal to that of the western part of the Central 
Karroo, namely, 10 inches. Near Vryburg and Mafeking, however, 
an average for five years gave 30.38 inches. This indicates that in 
the extreme east the rainfall is more or less adequate, but the country 
thus Avatered is a very small portion of the total. It has been re- 
marked of late that Bechuanaland is gradually becoming drier. In 
former years, it is said, the hippopotamus was found in many pools 
of the Kuruman River that are now nearly dry. The Kalahari 
Desert occupies a vast part of the area of Bechuanaland, and, as its 
name indicates, it is mostly a waterless land. During part of the 
year the natives have to rely for drink upon the fruit of the tsama. 
a species of melon. 

BASUTOLAND. 

Basutoland occupies the loftiest land in the part of the sub- 
continent of Africa in which it is situated. Its mean altitude is 
6,000 feet. Basutoland is the head and center from which most of 



^6 AGKICULTTJRAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

the^ large South African rivers flow. The country is densely popu- 
lated, and the steady increase of population among a pastoral people 
already numbering more than 400,000 is a serious problem. The 
land question is an urgent one, for the country is clearly over- 
crowded. A density of 40 natives to the square mile is a high one 
for South Africa. Basutoland is practically a great native reserve, 
and no European settlement is allowed within its boundaries save a 
handful of especially authorized persons. 

The land is divided on the communal principle, and there are no 
individual proprietors. All the arable ground is under cultivation. 
Of its extent of 11,716 square miles, only 6,000 square miles are in- 
habited owing to the mountainous nature of the country. Basutoland 
is a much richer country than Bechuanaland. It possesses a fine 
climate and is fairly well watered. It is said to be the best grain- 
producing country in South Africa, but since agriculture is entirely 
in the hands of the natives, whose methods of farming are very 
primitive, the crops are not at all as large as they could be if the in- 
dustry were developed along progressive lines. The principal crops 
are wheat, maize, and Kafir corn. 

SWAZILAND. 

Swaziland, the smallest of the three Protectorates, is situated at 
the southeastern corner of the Transvaal Province, Portuguese East 
Africa and Natal forming the eastern and southern boundaries. The 
^rea is 6,636 square miles, inhabited by 1,083 whites and 98,876 natives. 
The western portion of this Protectorate is high, grass covered, and 
well watered, averaging about 5,000 feet above sea level. The cen- 
tral portion consists of rolling downs of very fertile soil, also well 
watered, while the lowlands, about 600 feet above the sea, are malarial, 
covered with bush and of great fertility, but somewhat deficient in 
rainfall. The field crops are maize, Kafir corn, pumpkins, ground 
nuts, and sweet potatoes. The principal industry, however, is cattle 
raising, to which the country is admirably adapted. Several Trans- 
vaal companies are ranching in Swaziland on a large scale. During 
the winter upward of 250,000 sheep pass into this country from 
Transvaal Province to feed on its rich winter grasses. It is said that 
the country holds out much promise for the successful cultivation of 
cotton. 

Swaziland is reported rich in minerals, but little has been done thus 
far in connection with the development of these resourees. 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 

Mining and agriculture are the two chief industries of the Union of 
South Africa, and, while the former is by far the most important, at 
the present time there are many indications that the latter, in the long 
run, will become the most extensive and permanent. Mining holds 
the supremacy for the time being, and the value of the mineral output 
of the Union far exceeds that of all its other products combined. 
Directly and indirectly, mining carries the superstructure of South 
Africa's trade, and it provides the bulk of the public revenue of the 
country. 



MARKETS IX SOUTH AFRICA. 27 

MINING. 

The Union of South Africa has a most valuable asset in its extensive 
mineral deposits, and mining activity prevails in all four Provinces. 
The chief mineral products are gold, diamonds, coal, copper, and tin, 
while a variety of base minerals, such as asbestos, graphite, magnesite, 
zinc, lime, and others are being produced on a smaller scale. Gold 
and diamonds constitute by far the two most important industries, 
and the Union holds the premier position among all countries of the 
world in the production of these tw^o minerals. The total value of the 
mineral output for the year 1914 amounted to $217,130,126, dis- 
tributed as follows: Gold, $173,559,975; diamonds, $26,703,429; coal, 
$10,846,922; copper, $3,369,346; tin, $1,515,384; lime, $505,697; silver, 
$498,003; asbestos, graphite, magnesite, lead, flint, corundum, 
$131,370. 

The contribution of the various Provinces was: Transvaal, $188,- 
827,824; Cape Province, $19,321,382; Orange Free State, $4,762,877; 
Natal, $4,218,043. 

The mining industry expended, during the year 1914, $79,032,088 
on salaries and wages and $59,490,699 on supplies and machinery. 
The laborers it employs number about 30,000 whites and 235,000 
natives. This industry radiates into numerous channels, and sup- 
ports thousands of people in Johannesburg, Kimberley, and through- 
out South Africa. 

GOLD. 

The advances made by gold mining in South Africa have been 
phenomenal. In 1884 the value of the gold produced amounted to 
$49;132. This increased to $188,451,319 in 1915. The total value of 
gold extracted from South African mines up to the end of 1915 
reaches the huge sum of $2,216,996,800, and for the past few years 
these mines have contributed 40 per cent of the total gold produc- 
tion of the world. 

This industry is in a very flourishing condition, and the output is 
gradually increasing. A few years ago it was thought that the gold 
mines would soon enter a period of exhaustion and that the produc- 
tion of gold would decrease. From present indications such will not 
be the case for some years to come. Much attention has been given 
lately to the unexploited gold reefs lying east of Johannesburg and 
known as the Far East Rand. These reefs are said to contain gold 
of a value equal to the aggregate production of that mineral in South 
Africa since the year 1884. They are the property of the State, and 
the question is debated as to whether the Government should lease 
them to private companies for exploitation or should itself undertake 
the work. 

Gold mining in South Africa has, in a sense, ceased to be the peril- 
ous and uncertain undertaking so often characteristic of mining op- 
erations. Wealthy corporations are able to carry out any proposed 
operations to a conclusive issue. 'They possess ample capital to 
develop any » properties that scientific investigation demonstrates to 
be capable of yielding adequate returns, so far as that can be said 
of any mining proposition. The employment of highly paid experts 
in all branches of mining and engineering has assisted in placing the 
industry on the soundest possible footing. 



28 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

Gold production has exerted, and will continue to exert for many 
years, the most powerful influence upon all other branches of South 
African economics, and there is no reason to view with apprehen- 
sion this influence, which can only be felt as most favorable in every 
respect. 

One of the most interesting developments of recent years in connec- 
tion with South African mining is that several of the most prominent 
mining magnates are taking an increasing interest in agriculture and 
stock ranching. Sir Lionel Phillips, one of the foremost mining 
capitalists, has been for many years president of the Witwatersrand 
Agricultural Society, which is admitted to be the largest and most 
influential agricultural organization in South Africa. The De Beers 
Consolidated Mines (Ltd.), of Kimberley, have undertaken extensive 
farming and ranching operations along the Vaal River — a section of 
the country that, owing to the existence of conditions most difficult 
for agricultural development, has so far remained undeveloped. The 
De Beers Co. is doing, therefore, a pioneering work in agricul- 
ture that can not fail to be of great benefit to the contiguous com- 
munity. Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, another prominent mining man, is 
chiefly responsible for the Sunday River Settlement project, which 
aims to place several thousand people on the land, in a fertile valley 
near Port Elizabeth. Many more similar instances could be men- 
tioned. The interest of these mining men in the land was chiefly 
prompted by a desire to ascertain and demonstrate the extent of 
farming development possible in South Africa when sufficient capital 
is available. More recently, they have been instrumental in raising 
large sums of money for the financing of irrigation schemes, the de- 
velopment of closer farming settlements, and other agricultural un- 
dertakings. These efforts deserve commendation and appreciation 
by the farming community, as they are chiefly inspired by altruistic 
motives and are intended to facilitate the introduction of progressive 
methods into South African agriculture. 

DIAMONDS. 

The diamond industry ranks second in importance. At present it is 
suffering a period of depression, due to the restricted demand for the 
product. The mines are in the hands of wealthy corporations, which 
seem well able to withstand this temporary setback. The possi- 
bilities of the industry are far from exhausted. The diamond mines 
of Kimberley and the Transvaal appear to be developed with the 
idea that it would be inadvisable to produce a greater output than 
the demand can readily absorb. When the public is again able to 
purchase diamonds, the mines will undoubtedly be prepared to pro- 
duce them in sufficient quantities to meet the demand. In 1883 the 
value of diamonds exported from South Africa was $11,482,341, and 
in 1913, $58,478,419. It is stated that the exportation of South 
African diamonds to date has amounted to more than $925,000,000. 

COAL. 

Coal mining has made steady advances during recent years. The 
carboniferous areas in the Union are very extensive. Indeed, at a 
certain altitude coal has been found over nearly the whole of the 
country, the area where it is known to exist exceeding 56,000 square 



MARKETS IX SOUTH AFRICA. 29 

miles. Many of the seams are from 10 to 20 feet thick, within 500 feet 
of the surface, and very easily worked. Coal, consequently, is very 
cheap, the values before the war at pit's mouth per ton of 2,000 
pounds ranging from $1 to $1.50. In 1914. 8,477,923 tons were pro- 
duced, valued at $10,992,917. The gold and diamond mines and 
other local industries, as well as the railways, constitute the chief 
market for the coal output. Xatal coal is mostly bunkered by steam- 
ers calling at Durban, and shipments are made from time to -time to 
India, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, and adjoining African countries. 

OTHER MINERALS. 

Copper and tin are the onh^ base minerals other than coal that have 
so far been exploited to any appreciable extent, and only the Trans- 
vaal and Cape Provinces contribute to the output of these minerals. 
Copper mining has been carried on in Cape Province since 1852, in 
the neighborhood of Port Xolloth. on the Avestern sea border, and 
some $47,000,000 worth of this metal has been exported so far from 
that Province. It was not till the year 1906 that success attended 
prospecting operations in the Transvaal. Operations quickly ex- 
panded, and up to the end of 1914 that Province had exported copper 
worth about $4,000,000. It is yet premature to speculate on the 
future of the copper-mining industry, but the general opinion is 
that the output is certain to increase from year to year. 

The Transvaal is the chief producer of tin. The fields are situ- 
ated in the Rustenburg and Waterberg districts. Zululand and 
Swaziland are said to contain large deposits of tin. The production 
of this mineral, which was worth $44,387 in 1906, had increased to 
$2,082,195 in 1913. 

South Africa possesses an abundance of almost every mineral. 
Iron ore is found in every Province of the Union, and in Natal iron 
ore of a particularly good and pure quality is found in the neighbor- 
hood of Dundee. Asbestos, quicksilver, antimony, lead, silver, graph- 
ite, and zinc are beginning to be produced, and a number of these 
mining undertakings look very promising. 

The importance of the mining industry of the Union of South 
Africa can not be overestimated, as its prosperous condition facili- 
tates the development of other industries — agriculture in particu- 
lar — in a degree otherwise impossible. Mining capitalists and la- 
borers, instead of leaving South Africa after they have amassed the 
earnings of several years (as has been the case heretofore), are, in 
increasing numbers, settling on the land. There is also an increas- 
ing amount of local capital invested in South African mining un- 
dertakings, which will reduce the lar^e siuns of money sent to 
Europe every year to pay dividends to the holders of stocks of South 
African mines. Considering the relative soundness of South Afri- 
can mining properties, this means that it will become easier from 
year to year to obtain the capital necessary to exploit the rich agri- 
cultural resources of the country, and investments in South African 
irrigation schemes and the like give every promise of most hand- 
some returns. 

AGRICULTURE. 

The general economic aspects of the agricultural and pastoral 
resources and production of the Union of South Africa are dealt 



30 



AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMEXTS AND MACHINERY. 



with more fully further along in this report. It would appear ad- 
visable, however, since the main points of South Africa's economic 
position are now being discussed, to indicate briefly in this place the 
part that the agricultural pursuits of the Union play in the economic 
structure of the country. 

The agricultural and pastoral production of the Union of South 
Africa has increased to a very marked extent since the last Boer 
War. During the past few years the progress made has been much 
more apparent. The import and export figures available, and the 
consideration of the internal commerce of the country, give abundant 
proof of this. Many efforts have been made in recent years to 
improve the agricultural position of the country, and despite the 
fact that some of these endeavors have not yet had time to mate- 
rialize, the situation has undoubtedly improved greatly. The 
country, it must be remarked, has not been free from deterring in- 
fluences. Droughts of more or less intensity have affected large 
areas for the greater part of the past five years. Natural produc- 
tiveness of a high order goes hand in hand with animal and vegetable 
pests of a virulent kind. What nature gives with one hand she is 
likely to take away capriciously with the other. Prices and risks 
are great. No country in the world calls for more rigorous appli- 
cation of scientific methods to its farming activities, and the agri- 
cultural future of the country must, for these reasons, be reviewed 
with a full knowledge of both the favorable and the unfavorable 
aspects. 

The principal agricultural and pastoral products of South x\frica 
are wool, maize, ostrich feathers, wheat, sugar, butter, hides and 
skins, mohair, wattle bark, Kafir corn, butter, beef, and fruit. Until 
recent years the Union's production of some of these commodities, 
particularly foodstuffs, proved insufficient to supply the local de- 
mand, and one of the anomalies of South Africa heretofore (and 
even now, in a large degree) is that large quantities of foodstuffs, 
which the country is admirably fitted to produce, have had to be im- 
ported. The absence of statistics as to the range of the local con- 
sumption from year to year makes it difficult to speculate as to 
what the country is doing to remedy that deficiency. The result of 
inquiries leads to the opinion that the country is fast approaching 
the time when the importation of products that can be produced at 
home will entirely cease. That there is a good deal of improvement 
in the situation appears without much doubt, and, while certain 
agricultural products are not increasing in quantity to the extent 
that would be desirable, one finds in a good many cases that decided 
progress has been made. To demonstrate this, the following table 
has been prepared, showing the exports of several agricultural and 
pastoral commodities (South African produce only) : 



Articles, 



Tobacco 

Katir com 

Sugar, molasses, and treacle 

Meat 

Butter 

Barley 

Maize 



1911 



$32, 727 

4,233 

69,503 

35,277 

5,883 

1,834 

1,959,642 



1915 



$176,673 

114,606 

242,288 

574,889 

36,323 

31,311 

3,073,905 



Articles. 



Oats 

Eggs 

Dried fruit 

Hay and fodder. 
Hides and skins 
Wool 



1911 



$59,249 

26,366 

20,264 

141,732 

5,895,896 

18,978,513 



1915 



$139,853 

101, 2ia 

76,920 

283,984 

8,155,252 

26,181,921 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 31 

In addition to increasing the exports of certain produce the country 
has very substantially reduced the imports. The most notable cases 
in which this has taken place are shown by the following figures, 
giving the imports of several articles in 1911 and in 1915 : Sugar and 
sugar produce— 1911, $2,900,638; 1915, $883,017. Butter— 1911, 
$1,217,812; 1915, $593,684. Eggs— 1911, $278,835; 1915, $93,597. 
Meat and poultry (fresh)— 1911, $576,865; 1915, $17,334. 

A severe setback has been suffered in the exportation of ostrich 
feathers, wattle bark, and mohair. This, it is felt, is only tempo- 
rary and largely the result of the war, since, with the exception of 
mohair, these products had been materiallj^ increasing up to the time 
the war started. 

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES. 

Few countries in the world depend so largely on other nations for 
necessar}' requirements as South Africa does, despite its many poten- 
tialities. Manufacturing, from a modern point of view, is practi- 
cally nonexistent. Even the most elementary necessaries of life are 
imported in large quantities. Considering its small white popula- 
tion, its imports of $29,750,555 worth of food and drink in 1915, out 
of total imports of $164,650,932, disclose verj^ backward conditions 
in this respect. The necessity for establishing industries in the 
country has been very much discussed for a great many years, but 
the progress made in that direction, as these figures indicate, has been 
exceedingly slow. Buoyant hopes are expressed of much industrial 
development in the near future, but it is feared that certain social 
problems that are closely interwoven with the development of indus- 
trial life, and that the country has yet to solve, are likely to affect 
unfavorably these hopes. Chief among these problems is the lack 
of opportunity of the natives to acquire education for industrial 
pursuits or experience as skilled workmen. The presence of the na- 
tives, on the other hand, is said to offer a considerable obstacle to the 
settlement of white labor in the country. 

Manufacturing in South Africa has not yet emerged, to any 
marked extent, from the condition of providing some of the most 
elementary products and preparing into usable products various 
raw materials and foodstuffs. Leather and leather goods, harness, 
saddlery, furniture, boots and shoes, wagons and carts, cement, ex- 
plosives, sugar, soap, candles, matches, bags, tobacco, and bark ex- 
tracts form the principal industries of the country ; these articles, with 
few exceptions, are inadequate for the middle and better class con- 
sumers and are also produced in insufficient quantities to supply the 
local demand. Flour mills, distilleries, breweries, mineral waters, 
confectionery, cigars and cigarettes, concrete, fruit canning and pre- 
serving constitute other industries of varying importance. 

Owing to the scattered population the manufacturing of machinery 
is to be considered altogether impracticable for many years to come. 
There are no steel mills in the country, and but few establishments 
prepared to turn out iron and malleable castings. 

In certain lines some progress has been made in recent years, and 
goods have even been exported to contiguous countries. These, how- 
ever, are chiefly the products of flour and sugar mills, breweries and 
distilleries, candle and soap factories, as well as matches and the 
like and, to a certain extent, wagons, carts, explosives, cement, min- 
eral waters, manufactured tobacco, and canned and preserved fruit. 



32 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

A booklet recently published by the Cape Town Chamber of Com- 
merce states that the exports from the port of Cape Town of goods 
that passed through processes of manufacture in the country in- 
creased thirtyfold in seven years, from $36,500 in 1906 to $1,015,500 
in 1913, and that the total exports of South African manufactures 
m 1913 amounted to $2,350,000. 

The industries most susceptible of development in South Africa 
are those in connection with the raw products of the country, animal, 
vegetable, and mineral, which, worked with comparatively simple 
machinery, might be profitably converted into articles of a higher 
value before they leave the country — that is, in the form of semi- 
manufactured goods or in that of prepared raw materials, made 
ready to be utilized in the manufacture of finished high- class prod- 
ucts that South Africa can not as yet reasonably aspire to produce. 
If one-third of the hides and skins exported at present Avere manu- 
factured into leather in South Africa, an industry could be built up 
amounting to $15,000,000 per annum, doubling the value otherwise 
received for the raw products. Jams, dried fruits, cured tobacco, 
wine, brandy, and fruit pulp should also be exported in increasing 
quantities. In these articles an export trade is necessary, since the 
country can not absorb the products already turned out b}^ the local 
manufacturers. The war in Europe, with its consequent stoppage 
of the production of certain lines required by South Africa, has 
undoubtedly given an impetus to manufacturing in the country. 
This has been aided b}^ the const antl}^ rising freight rates and by 
the difficulty of securing bottoms to convey the goods to South Africa, 
these factors having turned the attention of the bujdng public to 
locally manufactured articles. 

The establishment of industries in South Africa has not kept pace 
with the progress the country has been making in mining and agri- 
culture, and present indications do not warrant great expectations 
of development in manufacturing pursuits, despite the great amount 
of discussion that this subject has received lately in South Africa. 
This is not meant to indicate that no progress will be made at all, 
but that, considering present conditions, it will take many years to 
develop manufacturing interests of any magnitude. An industrial 
population, it is recognized, would offer an important local market, 
for the agricultural and pastoral produce of South Africa, and what- 
ever manufactures the Union may be able to develop are practically 
assured of a wide market throughout the subcontinent of Africa. 
All countries situated therein are in a position similar to that of 
the Union, since they must import all manufactured articles. Some 
of these countries give every promise of a development that will in- 
crease the purchasing pow^er of their inhabitants, and the Kongo^ 
Khodesia, and Portuguese East Africa would undoubtedly purchase 
South African manufactures if they were available. 

Industrial education of a high order is unknoAvn in South Africa, 
except on mining subjects. The School of Mines at Johannesburg is 
said to be most complete and well equipped in every respect. There 
are 10 elementary technical schools for boys and 9 for girls. These 
provide instruction for 1,500 children. The principal subjects taught 
are carpentry, joinery, wagon building, blacksmithing, harness and 
boot making, tailoring, printing, dressmaking, cookery, and other 
similar rudimentary industries. 



II. REVIEW OF SOUTH AFRICAN AGRICULTURE. 

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. 

To account for the limited agricultural progress of South Africa 
until recent years, it is necessary to consider the nature of the 
country itself, the people who first populated it, and how they settled 
on the land. 

As long ago as the second half of the seventeenth century, when 
Holland figured among the great commercial and colonizing powers 
of the world, the Dutch East India Co. established a revictualing sta- 
tion for its ships at the Cape of Good Hope. The country then was 
new, vast, and attractive; accounts of its advantages soon reached 
Holland, and immigration from that country began. The revocation 
of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 led to the immigration into South 
Africa of several hundred French Huguenots. AVith the coming of 
these two races. South Africa began to be settled by men whose chief 
attributes were the spirit of independence and the instinct of freedom. 
For a great many years the population was small, whereas the land 
was limitless. This led the immigrants to occupy large and isolated 
farms, instead of settling in communities. In the course of time the 
countr3% in itself a very large one, became occupied from end to end 
by a very small and much scattered European population, far re- 
moved from the advantages of education and easy intercourse and 
with a limited market for its produce and live stock. Under these 
conditions the inhabitants had to strive to become altogether self- 
supporting, and the production of anything except what was needed 
for their individual support was discouraged, since without railways 
or close markets it was impossible to find an outlet for their produce. 
P'arming, therefore, was not undertaken for a monetary profit, and 
the chief concern of the farmers was to maintain themselves inde- 
pendent of outside supplies. 

Not all the settlers proceeded along these lines. A large number of 
them remained in the southwestern districts, where they developed 
communities fully abreast of those in Europe as regards civilization 
and ideals. These were disturbed, hoAvever, with the coming of the 
British, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The liberal views 
of the British Government respecting native policy, which culmi- 
nated in the abolition of slavery in 1834, led to the great Boer trek 
over the Vaal River, and the founding of the Orange Free State and 
Transvaal Republics. Here, again, each family occupied a large farm 
in a country which at that time must have proved most inhospitable. 
The nearest seaport was at least 400 miles away, the country was in- 
fested with wild and dangerous animals and inhabited by a black race 
that often proved most warlike. The land itself, while relatively 
good, lacked an adequate rainfall and it was different from that with 
which they were familiar. The pastoral inclinations of the new in- 
habitants, in addition to their self -centered and independent nature, 

1276°— 17— No. 140 1] 33 



34 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

induced them to settle the country sparsely in a manner that corrobo- 
rates the saying that the prevailing idea at that time was for a new 
settler to build his homestead where the smoke from the neighboring 
farm could not be seen from his own. This made it almost impossible 
to establish even the most elementary principles of government and 
community life. Education was nonexistent, and the civilization 
that the early settlers had carried from Europe tended to disappear in 
the course of two generations. Here, then, was produced in the main, 
in the course of two centuries, a situation exactly the reverse of what 
was required for the advancement of agriculture. Instead of small 
holdings, intensely cultivated, there were large farms hardly culti- 
vated at all, and used chiefly for the pasture of cattle and sheep. In- 
stead of proximity to markets, rapid transport, much intercourse, and 
good education, there were distant markets, slow wagon transporta- 
tion, infrequent association, and scarcely any education. 

The effect of the contact of the European population with the 
native races is also important. On the European was laid the task, 
for his own protection, of civilizing the barbarian. The latter 
gained ; but it was inevitable that the former should lose. In the 
sphere of labor the native exerted a marked influence on his European 
master. Since the native labor is not yet efficient, it is difficult to 
estimate the retardation that agriculture suffered from this cause 
alone. 

The continuous political changes also proved a great drawback. 
The land, the only resource the country was believed to possess 
until 50 years ago, remained for these reasons practically untouched. 

AGRICULTURAL AW^AKENING AFTER ANGLO-BOER WAR. 

The discovery of the diamond and gold fields at Kimberley and 
Johannesburg, and the establishment of other centers of population, 
found the resources of the country utterly inadequate to meet the 
demands for foodstuffs. Famine prices obtained, thanks to the total 
absence of any local supplies. No great efforts were made by the 
farmers to cater to the rich markets that had sprung up under their 
eyes. Fcr many years, with few exceptions, they pursued the even 
tenor of their ways. The real awakening to the agricultural pos- 
sibilities of the country did not take place until after the Anglo- 
Boer war. The war coincided with the breakdown of the old 
patriarchal system of farming. The old-fashioned farmer, before 
that time, tcok his cattle to the highlands during the summer and 
trekked to the lowlands in the winter. Stock raising (and stock of 
a very inferior kind, with the herds running wild) was his principal 
concern. When disease swept down and decimated his herds, he 
sought to avoid such evils by a trek into another district, the result 
of which was to spread infection broadcast through the country. 
The farms were of huge sizes, mostly holdings of 6,000 to 8,000 
acres, but practically no use was made of them save for cattle graz- 
ing. Just enough of the soil was scratched to produce sufficient 
wheat and corn for the needs of the household. The very founda- 
tions of agricultural organization were lacking. The only assistance 
given by the former Government of the Transvaal for the advance- 
ment of agriculture was a sum of about $75,000 per annum, dis- 
tributed among various agricultural societies. 



MAEKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. £5 

After the Anglc-Bcer war the country entered upon more settled 
political conditions. Mining was prosecuted with much greater 
vigor, and an increasing population, of a great purchasing power, 
at last lifted the blind that had obscured the richness of the land for 
so many long years. Railway construction was diligently pursued, 
and in 10 years the mileage of the country Avas nearly doubled. 

PROGRESS MADE AND DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED. 

What the Government and the farmers themselves have done dur- 
ing the past 15 years to promote greater farming production is not 
yet fully visible, as it is natural that, after the war and so many years 
of passivity, there phould have been a vast amount of reconstructive 
woi'k to be done. Diseases of live stock have, in particular, greatly 
retarded advance and, while much has already been accomplished 
to eradicate and control them, much has still to be done. One of 
the chief obstacles encountered has been the difficulty of adequately 
controlling the native locations, as well as the practice (still some- 
what prevalent) of moving the stock from one part of the country to 
another, in order to obtain satisfactory grazing. The true nature 
and vitality of the early occupants of South Africa have already 
become manifest, and one of the indications that South Africa is 
to have a great agricultural future is to be found in the evidence 
already given by many Dutch farmers that under congenial condi- 
tions, and with a proper stimulus, they can become as progressive 
farmers as those of any other country. No thoughtful man, after 
seeing what is being done by them in the Transvaal and eastern 
Orange Free State and in the southwestern districts of Cape Prov- 
ince, can fail to admit that, considering the very precarious and back- 
ward conditions in which they lived and farmed for more than 
two centuries, they have done splendidly during the past 15 years. 

There remain, undoubtedly, many farmers who have not yet been 
noticeabl}^ influenced by this new order of things, and among these 
there still prevail much indifference and neglect in observing the 
regulations promulgated to free the country of animal and ])lant 
diseases. They fail to dip their cattle systematically, and often 
they will move their stock through sections of the country already 
free from disease. Laws have been enacted to compel the dipping of 
diseased live stock, and at the end of 1914 33,000 dipping tanks had 
been erected. A fine is imposed upon those farmers who fail to com- 
ply with these regulations. It is estimated that no less than 
1,447.000 animals died from disease in 1913. Appalling as this figure 
is. it shows an improvement over the conditions prevailing two years 
before, when 1,717.600 animals, according to the census of 1911, died 
that year from disease, in addition to 3,780,221 that died from un- 
known causes. The Government maintains laboratories for the study 
of veterinary science at Ondertepoort. near Pretoria, which are said 
to be more elaborate and complete than those in any other similar 
institution in the world. That institution receives a grant of 
$250,000 per annum, and Sir Arnold Theiller, a Swiss expert, the 
head of the establishment, has a staff of between 30 and 40 assistants 
under him. To the law making compulsory the dipping of cattle 
can be attributed the satisfactory increase of large cattle in the Union 
that has taken place in the past few years. These numbered 5,796.949 



^6 AGEICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

in 1911, whereas it was estimated some months agio that about 
8,000,000 cattle were then in the country. This has already had the 
good effect of directing the attention of European buyers to the pos- 
sibility of obtaining meat supplies in South Africa, and various 
trial shipments made in 1914 have already resulted in an order for 
40,000 quarters of South African beef, and a number of small or- 
ders have been placed during the course of 1916. Trial shipments 
of lambs have already been made. An export trade in South 
African meat, of large dimensions, is, from all appearances, well in 
sight, and this new trade will undoubtedly prove a most substantial 
encouragement to notable agricultural development. South African 
farmers are also well aware that the country can never expect to be- 
come a meat-exporting country without adequate supplies of winter 
feed, and as a result the area devoted to crops is rapidly increasing. 

Great progress has also been made in recent years in connection 
with the conservation and utilization of water — that is, in storing 
water b}^ means of dams and using the flood water of the larger 
intermittent rivers that are in flood after the thunderstorms (in 
w^hich form, as has been said, most of the rainfall in manj^ sections 
of South Africa is obtained). This has resulted in thousands of 
acres of the dry Karroo and adjoining areas being planted with 
alfalfa and other crops. This system of flood-water irrigation has 
also been utilized with great success in the growing of wheat in cer- 
tain sections of the northwest, w^here the rainfall is so small that 
no crops of any kind could be raised except in this manner. The 
extension of this system, coupled with a better understanding of ade- 
(|uate methods of soil cultivation, to the end of making the most of 
all moisture available, is certain soon to make the country self-sup- 
porting as regards its Avheat requirements, and it will be conducive 
also to an increase in the area under other crops. 

The amelioration of the soil is also receiving more attention than 
ever before, and diversified farming and crop rotations are begin- 
ning to be practiced by an increasing number of farmers. The 
abundance of virgin soil, where the growing of crops could be moved 
on as soon as the cultivated lands showed signs of exhaustion, has 
retarded progress in this respect, but this condition of affairs is being 
gradually done away with, and the day is not far distant when the 
farmers will find it both advisable and necessary to cultivate the 
same land year after year. They are also beginning to appreciate 
that it is more profitable to farm a small area properly than to plant 
large areas with the idea of producing a crop with just as little cul- 
tivation as possible. Artificial manures are more freel}^ used and 
pains are taken to improve the pastures by more sj^stematic grazing 
and the growing of grasses like Paspalum and Tall Fescue. The 
burning of the grasses in the winter, a practice followed by many 
South African farmers for many years, is gradually declining as the 
country becomes more closely stocked and the farmers more enlight- 
ened. The growing of food for live stock on arable land, seldom 
practiced in the past, is becoming more and more common. 

One of the positive signs that South African farming is on the up- 
grade is the fact that agricultural land is becoming dearer. In the 
last decade, on an average, farms have probably more than doubled 
in value and in some cases considerably more. This must certain W 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



37 



be accepted as a sign of the farmers' prosperity and of confidence in 
the country, and as conducive to better farming and closer settle- 
ment. There is an increasing disposition to plow the land as soon 
as possible after the crop has been removed in order to insure a good 
tilth of the soil for the next crop. Heavy horses, instead of oxen, 
are beginning to be used for working the soil, and there are also 
in use a number of steam plows and steam and oil tractors. It is not 
improbable that before long the cultivation of the land by horses 
and mechanical agencies will be as common in South Africa as in 
other countries. 

DEMAND FOR FOODSTUFFS GREATER THAN DOMESTIC PRODUCTION. 

For several years to coi^ne South x\frican farmers will have the 
advantage that they have had continuously for the past 25 years, 
in that the demand for foodstuffs will be greater than the supplies 
produced in the countr}^ Much has been done in recent years to 
overcome this deficiency. It has been felt all along to be a deplor- 
able condition that a country like South Africa, Avhich finds it so 
difficult to secure sufficient capital to develop the resources of its 
land, should send away every year to foreign countries large sums 
of money to pay for food and drink imports for its small popula- 
tion of a little over one million and a quarter white inhabitants. 
During the five years ended December, 1915, not less than $160,- 
000,000 had been sent abroad for this purpose. The value of these 
imports during 1915 was approximately $30,000,000. These figures 
have been placed continuously before the farming population, and 
there has arisen a determination to rectify this anomaly in the next 
few years. The excess of demand over supply is attributable to the 
progress of the mining industry, which, in addition to the large 
number of people it employs, supports indirectly a large popula- 
tion, thus providing the means with which to prosecute other indus- 
tries, all of Avhich enhance the demand for the products of the land. 
The thoroughness and activity with which mining is prosecuted, fur- 
thermore, radiate inspiration and stimulus to the whole nation, 
awakening and encouraging the vitality and energy of the country 
and its people. 

GAINS INDICATED BY FIGURES AND PERSONAL OBSERVATION. 

The almost complete absence of records and statistics makes it 
rather difficult to undertake a systematic review of the development 
of agriculture in South Africa during recent years. The following 
figures from the census of 1904 and that of 1911 afford eloquent 
proof of the gains made by agriculture during that period : 



Items. 



Number of European farm- 
ers 

Cattle 

H orses 

Mules 

Asses 



1904 

77,926 

3, 500, 453 

449, 539 

134, 734 

141,930 


1911 


i 

97,381 1 

5,796,949 i 

719,414 

93,931 

336,710 

1 



Items. 



Ostriches 
Sheep... 

Goats 

Pigs 

Poultry.. 



1904 



360,830 

16,322,503 

9, 770, 545 

679, 084 
6,312,446 



1911 



746, 736 

30,556,659 

11, "62, 979 

1,081,600 

10,533,909 



38 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACiirNEBY. 



No figures of the acreage under cultivation or of the output of 
farm produce were obtained in 1904. In default of these figures, to 
make comparisons possible one must depend on the vieAvs and opin- 
ions expressed ,by the men who have witnessed the agricultural 
development of the country during the past two decades, and it is 
pleasing to observe that in not a single instance has there been hesi- 
tation in affirming that the advance made during that time has been 
truly remarkable. If figures pertaining to the Transvaal were avail- 
able they would probably produce astonishment, for great progress 
has been made in agriculture by that Province during the past few 
years. It would not be surprising if seme one disagreed with these 
views, because South Africa's agricultural progress is of a different 
nature altogether from that in the Unitecl States, Canada, or the 
Argentine. South Africa operates under many disadvantages as 
compared with those countries, and its agricultural clevelrpment can 
only be gradual, even though steady, and without great booms, nor 
is it likely ever to be of a spectacular character. 

FAVORABLE CONDITIONS AT PRESENT. 

In spite of the war, farms are at present being taken up in parts 
of the Union that were hitherto neglected, and in the older and more 
favored districts they are being subdivided. More land is being 
broken up, and more care is devoted to the cultivation of crops. Live 
stock is increasing in numbers and improving in quality. Farmer^ 
are busily engaged in fencing their farms, obtaining and conserving 
water, erecting buildings and dipping tanks for cattle and sheep, 
and, to a less extent, in planting trees and generally taking steps 
to increase the productivity of their farms and reduce the cc st of 
working them. Everywhere signs of achievement and progress and 
reasons for anticipating still greater advances are easily discernible^ 

That there has been a general uplift in South African agriculture 
can not be denied. It is doubtful whether of late years agriculture 
has made gTeater strides or farmers on the whole have been more 
prosperous in any part of the world than in South Africa. 

AREA OF LAND CULTIVATED. 

The following table, compiled from the census of 1911, shows the 
area of land under cultivation in the Union of South Africa, that 
lying fallow, grazing land, and land under irrigation. It is not likely 
that there has been much change in the relative order of these figures 
since 1911, but a notable increase has undoubtedly taken place as 
regards the area of cultivated land, variousW estimated at between 
20 and 30 per cent. 



Provinces. 



Cape Frovince 

Natal 

Transvaal 

Orange Free State 

Total 



Total area 
of Province. 



Acres. 

180, on, 445 

22, 40P, 102 

70,120,357 

31,996,846 



Under cul- 
tivation. 



Acres. 
2, 045, 959 
1,011,794 
2, 00% 133 
1,831,351 



304,617,8£0 . 6,894,237 



Lying 
fallow. 



Acres. 
791, 433 
224, 641 
468, 497 
390,579 



1, 875, 150 



Grazing. 



Acres. 

121, 923, 200 

9, 015, 926 

30, 025, 487 

27,920,386 



Under ir- 
rigation. 



Acres. 

592,970 

39,209 

238,887 

103,546 



188,884,999 974,612 



MARKETS IN SOUl'H AFRICA. 39 

CAPE PROVINCE. 

The southwestern districts of Cape Province show the largest 
acreage under cultivation. Malmesbur}^ leads all districts of Cape 
Province and of the Union, with 300,472 acres rf land under culti- 
vation and 175.291 acres lying fallow. Piquette-g, Paarl, Caledon, 
and all the districts from Clanwilliam and Ceres in the north of that 
vSection to Swellendam and Bredasdorp in the south in a westerly 
du-ecticn, have also a large area of developed agricultural land. The 
eastern districts, from Aliwal North in the north and Wrdehouse and 
Queenstown in the center to King Williams Town and East London 
in the south, are also among the most important in the Province in 
this respect. Albany, where Grahamstown is located, Uitenhage, and 
Oudtshoorn are equally important. The districts along the entire 
coast of the Province, except those in the extreme northwest, those 
contiguous to Riversdale and Mossel Bay, and a feAv others, are com- 
paratively well cultivated. The less-cultivated sections of Cape 
Province are in the north and northwest. The districts of De Aar, 
Hanover, Hav, Hopetown, Kimberlev, Phillipstown, Port Nollrth, 
Prieska, Barkly East, Carnarvon, Fraserburg, Riversdale, Mossel 
Bay, and the Karroo in general, are among these. 

NATAL. 

The districts along the entire coast of Natal and those in the ex- 
treme west of this Province are the most intensely cultivated. The 
district of Klip River heads the list, with 218,433 acres of land under 
cultivation; Eastcourt, Inanda, and New Hanover follow next, and 
Richmond, ITmlazi, and Umvoti show a larger acreage under culti- 
vation than the other districts not mentioned. In the territory 
around Pietermaritzburg much use is made of the land for agricul- 
tural purposes, especially toAvard the north and east of that city. 
In Zu Inland the districts along the coast have relatively large acre- 
ages imder cultivation, but those back of the coastal belt, toward the 
northwest, are perhaps among the less densely cultivated districts of 
Nntal. The strip of land in the center of Natal running from north 
of Paulpietersburg t'o Impofana in the south is the least-developed 
agricultural section of Natal. 

ORANGE FREE STATE. 

The most intensely cultivated districts of Orange Free State Prov- 
ince are along the northeast — Bethlehem, Ficksburg, Harrismith, 
Heilbron, Krconstad. Ladvbrand, Senek'al, and Winburg. with 
Lindley, Yrede, Thaba-N'Chu, and Vredefort following in impor- 
tance. In the ncrthwest there is more land under cultivation than 
in the southwest, although, generally speaking, there is very little 
land under cultivation west of Bloemfontein, this section being the 
least developed of that Province along agricultural lines. 

TRANSVAAL. 

It can be said that there is a great deal of uniformity in the distri- 
bution of land under cultivation in the Transvaal, and that all the 
districts are relatively increasing that area. The eastern districts 



40 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



are by far the most intensely cultivated. These are Middelburg, 
Standerton, Barberton, and Ermelo. On the other hand, Potchef- 
stroom, Marico, Rnstenburg, Lichtenburg, and Voolmarastad are not 
to be considered as much behind those in the east. Pretoria and 
Heidelberg are also among those showing large acreages of land 
under cultivation. As a matter of fact, all the southeastern districts 
of the Transvaal show up well in this respect, and there is also much 
cultivated land in some of the northern districts, as is shown by the 
fact that the district of Zoutpansberg leads all the districts of Trans- 
vaal Province in acreage under cultivation, with 255,712 acres (its 
area, it may be noted, is the largest of any Transvaal district). The 
less-cultivated portions lie toward the extreme north of the Province, 
chiefly because of the inadequate transportation facilities and the 
sparseness of the population, and toward the w^est, where the main 
reason is the absence of an adequate rainfall. 

While no figures are available for comparing the area of land under 
cultivation in 1904 with the area cultivated in 1911, when the last 
census was taken, the increase in the Transvaal must have been con- 
siderable. This Province, until recently, did not produce sufficient 
maize (the staple crop) even for its own consumption, whereas it 
now contributes largely to the Union's exports of this cereal, in 
addition to providing for the wants of the increasing native popula- 
tion in its mines. 

The chief crops grown in the area under cultivation are as follows: 



Provinces. 


Wheat. 


Oats. 


Barley. 


Maize. 


Kafir 
corn. 


Rye. 


Alfalfa. 

A ores. 
128,463 

2, 723 
14,340 

9,529 


Sugar. 


Cape Province 


Acres. 

485. 019 

2,326 

73, 072 

236, 682 


Acres. 
503,037 
16, 629 
102, 193 
184,512 


Acres. 

90,304 
2, 583 
5,949 
8,910 


Acres. 
242,327 
231, 667 
892,113 
905,502 


Acres. 
19,332 
8,108 
52, 769 
85,084 


Acres. 

90,503 
865 
665 

15,447 


Acres. 
23 


Natal 


64,228 
174 


Transvaal 


Orange Free State 


5 






Total 


797, 099 


803, 371 


107, 746 


2,271,609 


165, 293 


107, 480 155. 055 


64, 430 











Peas, beans, potatoes, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, onions, mangel, 
beets, tobacco, paspalum and other imported • grasses, groundnuts, 
sugar cane for cattle food, tea, and manna account for 243,138 acres. 

It w^ill be seen that the land devoted to maize (2,271,609 acres) 
represents more than one-half the total area under cultivation (4,- 
715,221 acres). The amount of land under cultivation, it may be 
noted, does not correspond with that given elsewhere under the same 
heading. Both of these figures are taken from the census of 1911, 
and quite possibly the discrepancy may be accounted for by the fail- 
ure of the farmers to specify the crops growm in their cultiva,ted 
lands when they returned the census blanks. 



AREA or LAND CAPABLE OF FUTURE CULTIVATION. 

Upon referring to the table on page 38, it will be seen that the 
present area of land under cultivation or lying fallow in the Union 
of South Africa is less than 3 per cent, a small proportion indeed of 
the total area of the country. The possibilities of increasing the cul- 
tivated area are undoubtedly enormous, but there are also large areas 
that will never be able to support a large white farming population. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 41 

So far the line of least resistance has been pursued in selecting land 
for cropping, and the land now under cultivation can be said to be 
the choicest in South Africa. Owing, however, to the farms averag- 
ing probably 2,000 acres — of which, at the most, only one-tenth has 
been thus far utilized for agriculture — it is possible to increase 
largely the acreage under crops in those partly developed farms 
where it has already been proved that farming can be carried out 
successfully. 

In other words, farming in South Africa has so far been done in 
patches, and the area of cultivated land can be greately increased 
by working the land contiguous to these patches. The subdivision 
of farms that takes place with every generation and the higher 
prices being paid for good farming lands will undoubtedly acceler- 
ate the increase in the area of land under cultivation. That there 
are many million acres susceptible of carrying profitable crops is 
undeniable, and one of the anomalies to be observed in South Africa 
is the large blocks of undev<3loped but fine and rich land that adjoin 
small fields carrying most excellent crops. There are also possibili- 
ties of development in sections of South Africa that so far have been 
altogether ignored or overlooked from an agricultural viewpoint. 
The northern Transvaal, for instance, is claimed to have many mil- 
lions of acres of good land capable of cultivation. Numerous small 
tracts of most fertile soil can also be made productive with rela- 
tively inexpensive irrigation schemes and with the adoption of better 
methods of cultivating than those prevailing in the country at this 
time. 

Some of the northwestern districts of Cape Province and the west- 
ern sections of the Orange Free State and Transvaal Provinces give 
very little promise of becoming susceptible of much agricultural de- 
velopment, because of the very small rainfall there. The land in 
many cases is even unable to support the white population at pres- 
ent settled upon it. The agricultural development of the immense 
Karroo can only take place with the aid of irrigation, and for this 
reason there can only be a gradual increase in its cultivated area. 

On the labor supply, the availability of capital for irrigation en- 
terprises, and the general adoption of improved methods of culti- 
vation hinges the question of increasing the area under cultivation 
in the Union of South Africa. A fair improvement is noticeable, 
which will be quickened as soon as the South African farmer, by im- 
proving his methods, attracts both the labor and the capital neces- 
sary for the exploitation of the rich resources of the land. 

WATERCOURSES AND RAINFALL. 

South Africa is a country in which the supply of water in propor- 
tion to its size is relatively small. In the high mountain areas there 
is, generally speaking, an abundance of water, but the lower and 
flatter areas are very deficient in this respect. The rivers are gen- 
erally flowing in deep river beds, with little fall in them, and the 
consequence is that it is often an expensive operation to utilize their 
waters for agricultural purposes. In the dry Karroo areas condi- 
tions are even worse, for the majority of river beds are rushing tor- 
rents in times of rain while at other times they are almost totally 
dry, with only a series of water pools here and there. One of the 



42 AGRICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

chief problems of the country is to conserve the water that runs to 
waste and to utilize it for agricultural purposes. 

Generally speaking, and excluding the coastal belt, the rainfall 
increases as one goes east and north ; that is, the rainfall is lowest 
in the west and increases as one goes east, lower in the south and 
increases as one goes north. Again, the soil is richer in the west 
than in the east, in the south than in the north. The population is 
distributed less, however, according to richness of soil than accord- 
ing to rainfall, especiall}^ regularity of rainfall, which determines 
the productivity of the soil and its ability to sustain population. 
Unfortunately, nearlj^ the whole country, so far as rainfall is con- 
cerned, is dependent upon a summer precipitation that is somewhat 
irregular and uncertain and, over a huge area, deficient as well. Tiie 
wettest spot in South Africa is on Table Mountain, in the immediate 
vicinity of Cape Town, where there is a very small area with an 
average rainfall for seven years of about 87 inches. The driest spot 
is in Walfish Ba3^ where the average rainfall is only 0.3 inch. Tak- 
ing South Africa as a whole, however, the wettest regions appear to 
be Zululand, Natal, and the southwestern districts of Cape Province, 
with a mean annual rainfall of rather less than 40 inches. In the 
Port Shepstone district, in Natal, the rainfall averages 45.08 inches 
yearly, and throughout Natal the average is between 30 and 40 inches. 
In the Transvaal the districts of Barberton, Belfast, Johannesburg, 
and Pilgrims Rest all enjoy an average minimum of 30 inches, while 
in the Orange Free State the eastern districts are the best watered. 
The Cape Province, owing to its vastness, shows a great variation w 
the rainfall. The mean annual precipitation in Cape Town is 25.54 
inches, and the Herschel district in the east heads the list with 28.70 
inches, while the Carnarvon district in the northwest shows up with 
8.18 and the Fraseburg district with only 6.74. The driest regions 
are the northwest, including its coast, and the west central Karroo, 
wdiere the mean annual rainfall is as low as 10 inches. 

Generally speaking, the southeastern part of the Cape Province 
has its rains in the winter; the rest of that Province and the other 
Provinces of the Union have the rains in the summer. There is a 
great fluctuation in the yearly rainfall of the Union. A maximum 
year may give from three to five times as much rain as a year of 
minimum fall. In Bulawayo, Rhodesia, there have been years of 

43 and 45 inches, and years below 15 inches; as low as 9 inches in 
localities 4 miles distant from the place where 45 inches had been 
registered in a heavy year. In Maf eking a year is on record with 47 
inches and one with 16 inches. In the Waterberg district a year of 
60 inches and one of 14 inches are recorded. These extremes are suffi- 
ciently frequent not to be treated quite as exceptions. In the Karroo 
the rain often shows some curious aspects. In a few places showers 
will fall across a farm in a path only a few hundred yards wide, and 
the track of the raindrops can easily be seen a few days later by the 
way every living animal crowds to the stretch of green feed growing 
in that strip of land. 

STATISTICS or RAINFALL. 

The following table contains the rainfall averages of several of the 
cities of the Union, which to some extent are indicative of the rainfall 
in the adjacent areas, although, as stated before, there is a great 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



48 



variation in the rainfall within very small distances. It sLoavs also 
the rainfall obtained during the summer (October to March) and 
that obtained during the winter (April to September) : 



Cities. 



Cape Town, Cape Province 

Port tlizabeth, Cape Provime.. 

Ceres, Ca-.e Pro » ince 

Pri ice Albert, Cape Province 

Graaf Pel ".el. Cape Province 

Bra 'fonLeii, Orange Free Sta'e.. 

Somerset tast, Cape Province 

(iratiaii.stown. Cape Province 

Cradoch, Ca pe Province 

Qi.eeistown, Cape Province 

Aliwal North, Cape Pro\-ince 

Kimberley, Cape Province 

Bloemfontein, Orange Free State 

Umtata, Cape Province 

Pietermarit/burg, Natal , 

Durban, Natal 



Number of 






days in 


Annual 


October to 


which rain 


rainfall. 


March. 


fell. 








Inches. 


Inches. 


86 


25.01 


4.84 


80 


20.93 


8.11 


68 


41.07 


8.37 


36 


13.20 


5. 93 


56 


17.15 


9. £8 


36 


9.63 


6.21 


89 


30.67 


21.45 


83 


29.96 


17.01 


54 


14.50 


9.09 


79 


23.31 


17.89 


72 


22.64 


14.81 


62 


18.26 


13. 64 


66 


21.29 


14. 06 


81 


24.28 


18.24 


123 


29.42 


24.19 


152 


39.48 


27.82 



April 1o 
September. 



Inches. 

17.14 

12. 82 

32.70 

7.27 

7.57 

3.42 

9.22 

12.95 

5.41 

5.42 

7.83 

4.62 

6.63 

6.04 

5.23 

11.66 



Other annual averages of rainfall are as follows : 

Transvaal. — Pretoria, 25.32 inches; Johannesburg, 30.77; Bethal, 
25.38; Blcemhof, 19.03; Ermelo, 37.26; Heidelberg, 25.47; Lichten- 
burg, 19.73; Potchefstroom, 23.24; Waterberg, 23.84; Pietersburg 
(district of Zoutpansberg), 20.20. 

Orange Free State. — Plarrismith, 27.62 ; Kroonstad, 25.18. 

.Va^'aZ.— Newcastle, 36.28; Dundee, 29.61; Weenen, 25.83; East- 
court, 28.39. 

Cape Province. — Mafeking, 24.56; Bedford, 27.68; Butterworth, 
30.36; East London, 24.43; Fort Beaufort, 22.39; Herschel, 27.95; 
Humansdorp, 25.79; Kirg Williams Town, 24.79; Peddie, 24.05; 
Oudtshoorn, 9.44; Sterkstroom, 22.50. 

Portuguese East Africa. — Lourenco Marques, 28.27. 

Rhodesia. — Bulawayo, 20.74; Salisbury, 30.16. 

Basutoland. — Maseru, 31.88. 

DROUGHTS. 



The great difficulty to be solved in South Africa is drought. The 
question of water is a very pressing one and affects the prospects 
of agricultural settlement at every turn. South Africa is but poorly 
supplied with rivers. For months no rain falls; then devastating 
storms sweep over the country with an enormous amount of water 
that runs to waste in a few hours. The average rainfall of South 
Africa (the Karroo excepted) is not small, but whereas elsewhere 
the rainfall is distributed with continuity and regularity through- 
out the year, in South Africa the rainfall is crowded into a few days 
or weeks, to give way to sunshme and dryness for the rest of the j^ear. 

The high plateau in the interior does not make for the conserva- 
tion of moisture. Water runs off such a plateau and rivers cut deep 
into it. Such streams as exist, therefore, are for the most part sunk 
at considerable depth and their overhanging banks make them of 
little use for practical purposes 



of irrigation. 



During the rainy 



44 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

season these attenuated streams become swollen to the dimensions 
of torrents, and the conservation of this flood water is one of the 
most urgent things in South African farming. During the year 
1915 alone, 2,514,769 sheep and goats died as a result of the drought 
that, with more or less intensity, prevailed in the midlands and 
northwest of Cape Province during the previous four years. In 1911 
there were 25,077,926 sheep and goats in that Province and only 
22,223,194 at the end of 1915. Considering the natural increase that 
should have taken place during that time, it will not be difficult to 
realize the great losses that must have been suffered during that 
period, by this branch of farming alone, as a result of drought. A 
great many stock farmers were totally ruined, and even many pro- 
gressive farmers who had taken careful steps to meet the almost 
constantly recurring droughts were thrown into absolute poverty. 
The Government had to come to the rescue of a large number of these 
farmers, and public works and irrigation schemes were undertaken 
with a view to affording employment to the farmers whose means 
of livelihood had entirely disappeared. The railways established 
special rates — only one-thiM those ordinarily prevailing — for the 
transportation of live stock from the drought-stricken areas to new 
pastures, but unfortunately the part of the country where the drought 
was most severely felt is poorly supplied with railways, and the 
farmers are situated too far from them to avail themselves of such 
concessions. In many parts a drought of such intensity had not 
been experienced for the past 30 years, which is saying a good deal, 
since South Africa is noted for the recurrence of droughts. The 
conditions were so distressing in certain districts that the natives 
were actually stealing sheepskins from which they further scraped 
the wool in order to use the bare skin for food. Even in some of 
the best- watered areas of the Karroo severe conditions prevailed, and 
m certain parts of the country back of Graaf Reinet the rainfall for 
the 18 months ended December, 1915, was only 7.69 inches. 

In view of these conditions, the floods that occurred in the early 
part of 1916 along the Gamtoos River offer a painful contrast. The 
rainfall at Willowmore in 1915 was only 5.60 inches, the lowest in 38 
years, and during the first days of 1916 7 inches of rain fell in a few 
hours right in the heart of the drought-stricken area, resulting in a 
very destructive flood and causing the loss of several lives and of 
large numbers of live stock, as well as a direct material loss va- 
riously estimated at between $500,000 and $750,000 — a big loss for a 
district so poorly developed. 

It is interesting to nrte in connection with the very small rainfall 
in certain parts "of Africa that 100 years ago the famous traveler 
Lichtenstein, speaking of the extreme fertility of the mountains near 
Naauwpoort, now practically in the heart of the arid Karroo, at- 
tributed it to the perennial nature of the streams and the presence of 
numerous vleis and of rich grasses. Dr. Moffatt, a veteran mission- 
ary of Griqualand West, where Kimberley is situated, tells of "per- 
sistent rains which clothed the very rocks with verdure, and of the 
richness of the natural vegetation in which the cattle walk up to their 
bellies in grass." To-day these two districts are incapable of raising 
a crop without irrigation. It seems remarkable that in so short a 
time such a great change should have taken place in these sections of 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 45 

South Africa, since now they are both arid in the extreme. It is 
generally assumed, in this connection, that the primitive conditions 
of South African settlement and farming that prevailed before the 
Anglo-Boer War have been mainly responsible for such an unde- 
sirable change. Even up to the present time little has been accom- 
plished to bring about a proper general understanding of the prin- 
ciples of conservation as affecting the fertility of the soil and the 
rainfall. 

There are few countries in the world that present so monotonous 
and so desolate an appearance as many parts of South Africa. Hun- 
dreds of miles are often traversed without a tree being seen, and in 
the winter large areas of the country are wholly depleted of all 
vegetation or of any covering whatever. This is partly the result of 
the long-followed practice of burning the grass every year, also of 
cutting down all trees for the purpose of obtaining props for the 
mines. The result of this is that whenever rain falls it finds the 
ground baked hard by the continuous and intense sunshine and with- 
out any obstacle to arrest the water from rapidly rushing away, car- 
rying with it to the lower areas the top soils, those which in the main 
carry the most humus and fertility. T?hus. an acute desiccating proc- 
ess has been going on for many years, which is believed to be re- 
sponsible to a great extent for the droughts that so constantly and 
fiercely succeed one another. 

The question of conserving the resources of the soil is absorbing 
a great deal of attention in South Africa at present, and, while the 
large area of the country, its small population, and the relatively 
^mall public income frcm the farming community will probably pre- 
vent the Government from undertaking afforestation and other 
counter schemes on a big scale, as the rural population increases its 
knowledge and experience it will demand laws to prevent a con- 
tinuance of the prejudicial practices that have made for the deteriora- 
tion of the fertility and Adtality of the land, and will induce indi- 
vidual initiative to palliate the disastrous effects caused by past 
ignorance and indifference. 

In considering the question of droughts care must be taken to note 
that they do not prevail (at least with the intensity described) in 
all parts of South Africa and that the)^ occur principal!}^ in those 
areas where the chief occupation of the farmers is stock raising. 
The Karroo areas, the northwest of Cape Province, and the western 
districts of Orange Free State and Transvaal Provinces, as has been 
pointed out in several instances, have an inadequate rainfall, and it 
is in these regions that the farmers are constantly threatened by 
droughts. These areas are mainly devoted to stock farming, except 
where irrigation is resorted to, and they are also inhabited, generally 
speaking, by the less progressive farmers of South Africa, who have 
often been encouraged to move on to more suitable areas of the coim- 
try, but who, owing to their conservatism, stay persistently on the 
land of their ancestors. The best-watered sections of South Africa 
are not immune to droughts, but these recur with much less fre- 
quency and intensity. The southwestern districts of Cape Province, 
the eastern districts of Cape, Orange Free State, and Transvaal 
Provinces, and, generally speaking, most of Natal are the sections 
to which South Africa is chiefly looking for expansion in agricul- 



46 AGRICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

tural industry and where, with an unsatisfactory season now and 
then, farming is carried on with a great deal of stability and 
uniformity. 

IRRIGATION. 

Owing to the scant}^ rainfall in many parts of South Africa the 
question of irrigation is of very vital importance, and consequently 
it is given a great deal of attention by the Government and private 
agriculturists. The late droughts have also served to convince many 
farmers that irrigation for the growing of winter feed is necessary 
to place stock raising on a successful plane. In South Africa, be- 
cause of the deficiency of humidity in the atmosphere, it is often 
necessary to adopt partial irrigation even where the rainfall is from 
20 to 30 inches per annum. The sun, being much stronger in the 
Tropics than in temperate latitudes, causes more water to be caught 
and to evaporate again before it can escape to safety below the soil 
than is the case in colder climates. A rainfall of 25 inches, sufficient 
for the needs of a crop in temperate latitudes, amounts to almost a 
drought in equatorial regions. The amount of annual evaporation 
of exposed water in South Africa is said to range from 4 feet in the 
lowlands to 7 feet in the highlands. 

The department of irrigation is considered of such importance 
that it has a status of its own and is not a part of any other adminis- 
trative department of the Government. Large sums of money are 
annually appropriated to stimulate the increase of the area of South 
Africa under irrigation, and loans are made to the farmers for the 
erection of irrigation works on plans approved by that department. 
At the end of March, 1914, the balance outstanding on account of 
irrigation loans was $3,133,610, and during the fiscal year 1913-14 
the amount advanced was $930 365. Famous experts on irrigation 
have often been engaged, both before and since the Union was 
formed, and a number of very ambitious undertakings have been 
under consideration. Sir W. Willcocks reported several years ago 
that some 3,000,000 acres could be brought under irrigation in the 
('ape. Orange Free State, and Transvaal Provinces for an outlay 
of $150,000,000. He calculated the value of the irrigated land, nov/ 
almost w^orthless, at $150,000,000. Other investigations show tha*^ 
there are immense possibilities for irrigation in every section of th''. 
country. The difficulty of obtaining the necessary capital has ob- 
structed the undertaking of extensive enterprises, but the Govern- 
ment in the meantime has assisted individual irrigation schemes, 
and thousands of acres are added to the irrigated area every year. 

It is but a few years ago that irrigation of land in South Africa, 
except in the Oudtshoorn district, was a trifling affair. During the 
past few years, largely as a result of the ass stance given b}^ the 
Government, irrigation development has taken place on a fairly large 
scale, and well-founded hopes are expressed for much advance in this 
direction in the next few years. One of the drawbacks in the past 
has been that the water laws of South Africa Avere framed and based 
upon those existing in countries from which the original European 
settlers came, in Avhich humid and water-logged conditions exist, 
instead of the arid and semiarid conditions prevailing in South 
Africa. It is contended that the existence of such laws has in many 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 47 

cases discouraged pri\ate individuals from utilizing- the water pass- 
irg through their lands for irrigation purposes. Land under irri- 
gation, especially in the Karroo, where the soil and the climate are 
most excellent, commands very good prices. In the Oudtshoorn dis- 
trict land suitable for tobacco growing has been sold in one instance 
at the price of $3,400 per acre, Avhich, lioweA^er, is an abnormal figure. 
At Warrenton 90 acres of land irrigated by the Vaal River have 
realized $1,250 per acre and have earned from $400 to $750 per acre 
annually growing fruit and vegetables. As much as $750 profit has 
been derived from 1 acre of tomatoes in four months. In the vicinity 
of Graaf Reinet plots of land within the irrigated area are worth 
about $1,000 per morgen (2.11 acres). There are few parts of South 
Africa in which, when sufficient water for the crops is available and 
these are intelligently cultivated, the most abundant and profitable 
crops can not be grown. The soil in the areas susceptible of irriga- 
tion is extremely rich, and with the wonderful climate that the 
country enjoys water is the only thing required to build up most 
prosperous agricultural settlements in parts that are now in a semi- 
desert state. 

SUNDAY RIVER SETTLEMENT PROJECT. 

One of the largest irrigation projects now in process of construc- 
tion in South Africa is that known as the Sunday River Settlement 
at Addo, 25 miles from Port Elizabeth. Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, one 
of the leading mining men of Johannesburg, originated the idea and 
he is now devoting most of his time and energy to the completion of 
the enterprise. The scheme is to catch the constantly recurring floods 
of the Sunday River and to distribute the water to the lands by 
the aid of canals. These floods last from three days to several weeks 
and come down from 6 to 12 times in ordinary years. The land to 
be irrigated is very rich, and citrus-fruit, vegetable, tobacco, and 
alfalfa growing, with dairying, pig raising, and the fattening of 
stock and poultry, form the chief industries for which these irri- 
gated lands are intended. Blocks of from 10 to 40 acres will be 
scld to approved settlers, and the purpose is to attract time-expired 
men from the mines and railways, as well as farmers from the 
United Kingdom. It was calculated that in August, 1916, 8,000 
acres would be under the furrows ready to be put under crops during 
the following spring; 2,000 acres are to be plowed and prepared for 
returned soldiers, who will not be required to make any payments 
for the land during the first five years if satisfactory security is 
given. The promoting company will undertake plowing, leveling, 
transport, fencing, dairying, curing bacon, sale of produce and stock, 
planting of orchards, establishment of alfalfa, and purchase of 
seeds, etc., whenever these things can be done at less cost than 
v\ould be incurred by the individual settlers. This enterprise is. 
looked upon as the testing of South African conditions in respect 
to closer settlement and the exclusi^'e employment of Avliite labor for 
farming work, and its success will unquestionably have a most im- 
portant effect on the future of intensive agriculture in South Africa. 
The men behind this project are public-spirited and chiefly moved 
by the desire to ascertain and to demonstrate the capabilities of 
closer settlement of the land without Government assistance and of 
progressive methods of farming. 



48 AGRICULTUBAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

OTHER IMPORTANT IRRIGATION WORKS. 

The Kaffirskraal Dam, in the Klerksdorp district, is one of the big- 
gest undertakings of its kind in the southwestern Transvaal. Its full 
capacity is 200,000,000 cubic feet of water, the length of the earth 
embankment 2,700 feet, its greatest height 34 feet, and its greatest 
width at ground level 150 feet. The area of the water conserved 
will cover about 600 acres, and about 1,500 acres will be irrigated by 
it. Eighteen and one-half miles of canals have been built to carry 
the water from the dam to the lands to be irrigated. The cost is 
estimated at about $532,000. The largest irrigation undertaking in 
South Africa is being carried out by the Government along the Oli- 
fants River in the Van Rhynsdorp district, to irrigate more than 
30,000 acres of land ; this will cost over $2,500,000. A very large pro- 
portion of the irrigable land under this scheme belongs to the State 
and will be available for settlement. In the Breede River there are 
nine cooperative irrigation projects financed under the irrigation act, 
which have cost up to date $940,000. The Calitzdorp Dam, in the 
Oudtshoorn district, is a structure of concrete, 113 feet high, which, 
when completed, will cost $600,000. Local irrigation boards are gen- 
erally responsible for enterprises of this character, the necessary 
moneys being advanced to them by the Government at 4 per cent 
interest and redeemable in 60 years. These boards are formed by 
the farmers who are to be benefited by such schemes, who collectively 
become" responsible for the repayment of the funds advanced by the 
Government. 

Other examples of large irrigation works in South Africa are 
afforded by the Van Wyks Dam in the Carnarvon district, with an 
area of 19 square miles and an average depth of 10 feet, holding when 
full 35,000,000,000 gallons of water. The Smartt Syndicate, in the 
Britstown district, has a dam 1,640 feet long at the crest, and its 
greatest height 60 feet. This will impound 4,000,000,000 cubic feet 
of water and will irrigate a very fertile and level tract of land 9,000 
acres in extent, although the ultimate irrigable area is 25,000 acres. 
Considerable activity prevails in the Fish, Gamtoos, Olifants, 
Breede, and other rivers of the Cape Province along Robertson, Wor- 
cester, Colesberg, Clanwilliam, Cradock, Humansdorp, Oudtshoorn, 
Somerset East, and Swellendam. The Potchefstroom district in the 
Transvaal leads all the districts of that Province in the matter of 
irrigation. The census of 1911 shows this district as having 35,000 
acres under irrigation, and undoubtedly this area has been largely 
increased since that time. 

ACTIVITY or IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT. 

The irrigation department has from 70 to 80 drills actively en- 
gaged in water boring. These machines are rented to the farmers 
to bore for water in certain prescribed areas, where contractors 
are not available to undertake the work, at the rate of $20 per 
working da}'', and the services of the drills are in much demand 
for the provision of farm water supplies. Tlie Government pro- 
vides the machinery and experienced men to work it, while the 
fuel and water required for running the drills are supplied by the 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 49 

farmers. During the financial year 1913-14, 609 bore holes, with 
an aggregate depth of 76,863 feet and yielding 7,972,300 gallons of 
water per day, were bored for farmers. There are said to be about 
100 water-boring contractors in South Africa. In almost every 
instance where bore holes have been drilled success has attended 
the operations. In view of this, a vigorous policy is being pursued 
in connection with the development of vacant crown lands in 
Bechuanaland and the Kalahari, as it has been proved that these 
sparsely populated areas possess abundant supplies of underground 
water at a reasonable depth below the surface, giving promise that 
at no distant time these waste places will be able to sustain a rela- 
tively large number of farmers. 

Irrigation by pumping is also steadily advancing, especially since 
the suction gas engine has proved successful when using charcoal as 
fuel. The plants generally in use range from 10 to 80 brake horse- 
power. 

FARM LABOR AND CLOSE SETTLEMENT AS RELATED TO IRRIGATION. 

The problem of farm labor in South Africa is one that must be 
considered when the matter of irrigation is approached. So long 
as the inefficient native is the only laborer to perform the various 
field operations, it will be in many cases an economic mistake to 
spend large sums of money in irrigation works. Irrigation increases 
the value of the land, because a large sum of money is spent to 
make it irrigable. Such high-priced land, therefore, must be very 
carefully and intelligently cultivated if an adequate return for the 
investment is to be obtained. It is doubtful whether with native 
labor the large crops necessary to derive a reasonable profit on the 
capital iuA^ested can be obtained. Wherever the native is to form 
the principal class of farm labor employed, irrigation (or any kind 
of farming requiring a large investment of capital) will be preju- 
diced. These conditions appear to be well understood in South 
Africa, and it is gratifying to see that whenever irrigation is dis- 
cussed the subject of close settlement and white farm labor is at 
once associated with it. There is little doubt that after the war 
many returned soldiers and sailors — also many men who left South 
African farms, attracted by the good wages paid at the mines — 
will be settled on the land to farm in accordance with the modern 
principles of intensive cultivation of the soil. By declaring certain 
irrigated areas as exclusive white settlements, it should also be pos- 
sible in course of time to give employment to the so-called " poor 
whites " as agricultural laborers, thus giving them a chance to 
become again useful members of the community. 

The question of close settlement in South Africa will always 
go hand in hand with that of irrigation, for without irrigation 
there are few sections in the country where close settlement of the 
land can be satisfactorily undertaken. This matter of close settle- 
ment, like that of irrigation, is engaging the attention of many 
prominent men of South Africa, and great progress is being made 
in carrying out several projects of this nature. The African Realty 
Trust Co. is developing several close-settlement projects at this time. 
One of them is the Langholm estate, in the Bathurst district, which 

1276°— 17— No. 146 4 



50 



AGRICULTURAL. IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



is said to be admirably adapted for the growing of pineapples. A 
canning plant for pineapples is being erected, and an expert from 
Singapore has been engaged to manage it. Other properties are 
being developed by this company in the Cape, Natal, and Transvaal 
Provinces. In some cases ready-made farms already planted v^ith 
citrus fruits, apples, sugar, tobacco, and other crops are offered to 
suitable settlers. Through subsidiary companies this concern in- 
tends to undertake the packing and exportation of the produce. It 
has recently opened an office in London for the purpose of calling 
attention to the advantages of its various estates. In the Orange 
Free State the idea of close settlement is also taking hold, even 
among Dutch farmers who in the past have been imbued with the 
idea that farming was not possible except when several thousand 
acres of land were available. The increasing practice in many dis- 
tricts, where for hundreds of years no crops have been grown with 
which to feed the stock in winter, of plowing a sufficiently large area 
for crops for the cattle, and also for a certain amount of maize for 
export, will no doubt lead to a reduction in the size of the farms, 
which will thus become better cultivated and make possible the set- 
tlement of a larger number of people on the land. 



STATISTICS OF IRRIGATED LAND. 



The following table shows the extent of land irrigated in the Union 
of South Africa, according to the 1911 census : 



Provinces. 


Total From 
area 1 con- 
under stantly 
irriga- flowing 
tion. 1 streams. 
i 


From 
periodic 
streams. 


From 

storage 

dams and 

wells. 


Unsreei- 
fied. 


Length of 
furrows. 


Cape Pro\'ince 


Acrea. 

592, 970 

39, 209 

238,888 

103, 547 


Acrea. 
299,499 

32, 999 
180,2-6 

19.885 


Acres. 

195,066 

3,702 

22,327 

23,999 


Aerea. 

97,761 

2,423 

39,956 

55,056 


Acres. 
636 

85 
329 
607 


Yards. 
13, 935, 760 


Natal 


993, 676 
6,8?6,351 
1,329,317 


Transvaal 


Orange Free State 




1 ' 




Total 


974,614 /^32.6.'i9 


245,094 


195,204 


1,657 


23, 155, 104 











a In 1904 the land under irrigation in Cape Province was only 408,660 acres, showing an increase of 40 
per cent in seven years. 

In connection with irrigation and the obtaining of water for 
stock and household purposes, there are 27,403 fountains and 42.012 
dams in South Africa. There are also 16,992 wells for the same pur- 
pose, in connection with which 4,6G2 hand pumps, 3,775 windmills, 
89 steam engines, and 114 internal-combustion engines are used, and 
14,602 bore holes, in which 1,967 hand pumps, 7,812 windmills, 53 
steam engines, and 330 internal-combustion engines are in operation. 

SOILS. 

f 
f 

The best soils of South Africa are found in those parts of the 
country where the rainfall is so inadequate that crops can not be 
grown without irrigation. The soils of the well- watered sections of 
South Africa can not, generally speaking, be termed rich in plant 
food and humus. Owing to the variety of soils existing in South 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. , 51 

Africa, the different types found within comparatively small areas, 
and the absence of well-defined areas possessing characteristic types 
of soil, information as to the prevalent soils in the country is diffi- 
cult to convey. As a general rule, South African soils are not rich 
in the total amount of salts and plant food required by the crops, 
and they are also deficient in lime and phosphates. These chemicals 
have to be added to the soil in the form of artificial fertilizers to 
make the land productive. The soils in the southwestern districts 
are among those in which this deficiency is most often observed. 
Wheat could not be grown in the Malmesbury district and adjacent 
areas, where the soil is chiefly a loamy clay, without the aid of 
superphosphates or guano. Abundant crops are obtained in South 
Africa, however, in sections where the soils appear to be extremely 
deficient in plant food. This is attributable to the favoring influence 
of the abundant sunshine and the high temperature experienced in 
South Africa. Soils poor in available salts, under these conditions, 
give the plants greater nutriment than soils containing a consider- 
ably larger percentage of salts under climatic conditions less favor- 
able. In considering the fertility of South African soils, therefore, 
these features must be held in view, as their influence on the pro- 
ductivity of the soil is very marked. The remarks concerning the 
deficiency of salts in the South African soils must not be taken to 
indicate that those soils are, as a rule, poorer than the soils in other 
coim tries. They probably compare very favorably, on the whole, 
and the amount of nitrogen they contain is admitted to be quite high. 

Black turfs, red clay, sandy soils, and loamy soils both red and 
gray, with an admixture of sand, are often encountered and are con- 
sidered among the best soils for maize. These are found larg3ly in 
Transvaal Province, and particularly in Heidelberg, Standerton, 
Bethal, Ermelo, and Lichtenburg districts. Deep loamy alluvial 
I'iver-bottom soils are found along most Transvaal rivers and streams. 
Heavy brown loam is a type of soil very common in Transvaal and 
Natal Provinces and in Khodesia. Rich soils are also found in 
pockets along the foot of the eastern slopes of the Drakensberg 
Mountains, but only a short distance out on the plains beyond there 
occur strips of ashy gray soil which seem unsuited to almost any 
crop ; along the Orange River and in many parts of northwestern 
Cape Province the soil is very rich and, with the excellent climate 
prevailing there, invites comparison with the famous lands of Egypt. 
With irrigation or an adequate rainfall the land could yield wondar- 
ful crops of anything. The soils of Natal might be considered as 
above the South African average in contents of humus and general 
richness. This is chiefly the case along the coast, where sugar cane 
is extensively cultivated. Gray and black alluvial soils, sandy gray 
and red light loams, also chocolate loams and sandy clays, are types 
of soil often observed in South Africa. 

The Karroo soil is usually a red, sandy clay, which, as it is washed 
away by thunderstorms (so frequent in that region), is deposited in 
the valleys below in the form of a stiff, red clay silt, which is ex- 
tremelj^ fertile. Man^^ farmers, the Dutch in particular, are very 
partial to the "' Vlei " soils in selecting land to be put under crops. 
These correspond to our " gumbo " soils, which in South Africa are 
often found with a good growth of quick grass. In the aggregate 



52 AGRICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

there is a large area of this gumbo soil under cultivation ; it is most 
difficult to handle, and a heavy single-furrow moldboard plow, with 
a strong fore-carriage, is used instead of the two-furrow moldboard 
plow, which may be regarded as the standard type of plow used in 
South Africa. 

As regards the physical condition of South African soils in con- 
nection w^th agricultural operations, it will be noted when the sub- 
ject of plows and plowing is discussed that the science of plowing 
has not yet reached the stage when special shapes of moldboards are 
demanded by the farmers to plow soils of different types and in dif- 
ferent conditions. It may be repeated here that after the maize, 
which is the staple crop of South Africa, has been harvested the 
rains practically cease, and a long period of dryness is experienced; 
and, since the spring rains may come too late to allow sufficient time 
to prepare the land for the next crop, it is often necessary and indis- 
pensable to plow the land during the winter, when the soil is very 
hard and dry. The favorable weather usually prevailing after the 
maize has matured also tends to make the harvesting of this crop a 
very protracted operation, with the result that plowing is not started 
soon enough to benefit by the moisture remaining in the soil during 
the early autumn. The ground becomes still harder and drier as the 
result of intense evaporation and the dryness of the atmosphere dur- 
ing the winter. The practice that still prevails in many parts of 
South Africa of burning the grass every winter also accounts to a 
certain extent for the unsatisfactory physical condition of most 
South African soils. Where this is done, the soil is laid bare to the 
sun, and Avhen precipitation takes place there is nothing to retard 
the flow of the water, which runs unhindered to the next water- 
course, going to waste and carrying with it, if the soil is sandy, an 
immense amount of soil. This also causes the soil to become either of 
the hard consistency of a brick or pulverized by the heat into a 
powder, the particles of which are so fine that the water can not 
penetrate into it. 

The topography of South Africa demands consideration also when 
soils are discussed. As has been shown. South Africa is a high table- 
land or plateau, wath a rapid descent on all sides to the level of the 
sea; consequently all waterways, streams, and rivers have a rapid 
descent from the high table-lands, and although on the highest part 
of the table-land, the Transvaal, the rainfall is between 30 and 40 
inches, the fact that it falls chiefly during a few months and usually 
descends with great rapidity to the sea causes a condition of more or 
less drought to prevail for the greater part of the year. As a result 
the soil is left in a baked condition and, worse still, subject to the 
scorching heat and dry winds and dust storms, causing much of the. 
soil to be carried away to the sea when the rains fall. All this 
leads to an enormous wastage, erosion, and loss of soil, and this must 
certainly cause the lack of humus observable in South African soils, 
since such vegetable matter as has mixed with the soil during the 
growing season is mostl}^ washed away when the rains come. 

SIZE OF FARMS. 

In the earl}^ days the farms of South Africa were of very large size, 
and holdings of more than 25,000 acres were not uncommon. The 
partition of farms among the male members of the generally large 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 53 

families has brought about in many cases a substantial reduction in 
the size of the farms. Some of the sheep and cattle runs in tlie 
northwest of Cape Province, parts of the Karroo, the western sec- 
tions of the Orange Free State, and the west and north of Trans- 
vaal Province are still very large, for the reason that from time to 
time settlers from these sections have sold their land to their neigh- 
bors — either to retire from that branch of activity or in order to take 
up land in the more favored sections of the Union. It is quite com- 
mon to find farms of 12,000 and 15,000 acres in those sections of the 
country. In the best districts of the Transvaal and Orange Free 
State the farms are still of 2,000 to 5,000 acres, but these are being 
gradually subdivided as the demand for good arable land increases. 
The parts of South Africa with the smallest farms, where to some 
extent close-settlement conditions prevail, are in the southwestern 
region of Cape Province, where, in the districts of Paarl, Stellenbosch, 
Cape, and Tulbagh, the average size of the cultivated farms is prob- 
ably under 200 acres. In the other districts of that region, where 
wheat is extensively grown, the farms may average about 500 acres, 
and in the eastern end of Cape Province the farms are also relatively 
small, although large farms are still found among them. In Oudts- 
hoorn, the famous ostrich farms are small in size, and, generally 
speaking, this is also the case wherever irrigation schemes have en- 
hanced the value of the land. Along the Natal coast the farms are 
also small in size. There is assuredly a tendency to subdivide the 
farms everywhere. In a few cases when a syndicate intends to put 
land under irrigation the land is bought from the various individual 
farmers contiguous to the area where the water dam is to be built, 
but when the works have been completed these farms are again sold 
in small plots and the farms become much smaller than before the 
irrigation works were consi:ructed. Information is given elsewhere 
as to the effects of close settlement and irrigation, one of which is in- 
variably to reduce the size of the farms. Farmers are beginning to 
understand that it will pay them better to cultivate properly a small 
farm than to attempt the cropping of large areas of ground, and 
many farmers have in recent years sold portions of their farms, 
attracted by the good prices they have been offered and also induced 
to do so by the realization that they had more land than they were 
able adequately to cultivate and use. This subdivision of farm hold- 
ings is certain to continue, and the growing desire for a law to tax 
the land is due to an appreciation of the abuses that such a law 
would prevent, chief among these being the locking up of large tracts 
of land by private companies in the Transvaal which have purchased 
large blocks of' land, confident that there will be a strong demand 
for it in the next few years at much enhanced values. The desire to 
bring about a change of attitude on the part of the large landholder 
who still devotes good agricultural land to pastures is another reason 
behind this movement. 

GENERAL ASPECTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN FARMING LIFE. 

The farming industry of South Africa has not yet reached the stage 
where uniformity of agricultural practice has been established as a 
result of the coordination of the settlers' ideas and methods. Every 
farm possesses characteristics of its own as regards its layout, man- 



54 AGKICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

agement, and methods of cultivation. In other words, education and 
agricultural research have not yet established popular standards 
making for the adoption of uniform methods in the various phases of 
farm life. 

As has been pointed out, the farms of South Africa are often of 
large size, but the chief differences are noted between farms with a 
large acreage under cultivation and those in which pastoral farming 
is still the predominant industry. 

As a rule, farms with a good deal of cultivated land can be said to 
begin being subdivided as soon as the sons of the owner become of 
sufficient age to undertake the responsibility of supervising the work 
of a certain portion of the farm; separate dwellings for such mem- 
bers of the family are built for them close to the lands that have 
been intrusted to their care. This is done chiefly with the idea of 
saving time in going to and from such lands. Instead, therefore, of 
the owner's residence being of a size commensurate with the im- 
portance of his operations a number of small dwellings are seen in its 
place, scattered over the property. This is also the case when a large 
farmer has to employ outside foremen. The result is that only in a 
few cases, and in connection with certain operations, is it possible to 
appreciate the amount of work that an owner is doing on his property. 
Although comfortable, the dwellings for the members of the house- 
hold are usually very unpretentious and simple in their arrangements, 
and this is also true of the other buildings, such as warehouses, barns, 
etc. ; it may be largely due to the excessive cost of building materials 
in a country like South Africa, where all the materials for dwellings 
along modern lines must be imported from overseas. The natives 
employed on such farms live in their own kraals adjacent to the 
owner's homestead. 

Large pieces of land under a crop are seldom seen. Owing to the 
abundance of land, only the choicest spots and those more easily 
w^orkable are selected. A farmer may have as much as 800 or 1,000 
acres under maize, but this might be grown in 10 or 15 separate sec- 
tions. Another characteristic is that a farmer will generally devote 
his land to but one or two different crops. He may have a large 
acreage under maize and another section of his land under alfalfa, 
or another crop, and, with the exception of a sufficient supply of 
vegetables for his own needs, he will not grow anything else. In all 
cases he will have a certain number of cattle and of sheep, when his 
lands are suitable for live stock. In the areas where ostriches do 
well, a number of these will almost invariably be kept, as they re- 
quire little attention. 

Only in cases where the farm is located near creameries is dairy- 
ing practiced at all, and pig breeding and poultry raising are still 
a specialty with some farmers and are not very generally practiced. 
There is now developing a tendency toward more diversified farming, 
which is assisted by the increasing number of creameries that are 
being established all over the country, as well as the better facilities 
for marketing such products as the farmer may raise on a smaller 
scale. 

The various farm machines are taken from one section of the faim 
to anothei* as they are required, but in the case of plows and harrows 
cverv section of the farm mav have its own separate tools. 



MAKKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 55 

As has been said elsewhere, practically all the manual labor is per- 
formed by the natives, who are often left to do the work in the man- 
ner they deem best. It is a rare occurrence to see the owner of the 
farm or his foremen or any white person do such operations as plow- 
ing, harrowing, planting, and harvesting. The fact that all labor is 
left for the natives to do is responsible in the main for the slow 
progress made in adopting efficient methods of farming, because of 
the owners' lack of familiarity with the actual practical work of a 
farm. To this condition must also be attributed the relatively high 
cost of farming in South Africa, since no standards have been estab- 
lished as to the work that the laborers or the machines should per- 
form in a given period of time. The work is also done improperly, 
owing to the absence of adequate supervision of the natives, and this 
is undoubtedly another deterring cause. 

These are, it is felt, the ordinary conditions prevailing in most 
South African farms, but there is assuredly a movement toward an 
improvement in all these aspects of farming life. In the Transvaal, 
and in other parts of South Africa, there is a constantly growing 
number of progressive farmers who take the most intense interest in 
all phases of the work done on their properties and who closely 
supervise the work of their laborers and teach them how to do more 
and better work. 

Among the backward farmers, chiefly those who limit their activi- 
ties to stock raising, farming life is apparently devoid of interest. 
The dAvellings are most primitive, often consisting of a single room, 
where the various members of the large families eat and sleep and live 
continuously. Such farmers leave everything connected with the 
farm to their natives. 

BARNS AND SHELTER FOR IMPLEMENTS. 

There is almost an entire absence of barns on South African farms 
for the sheltering of grain and implements. The grain is sold soon 
after the harvest is over, to either the cooperative societies or the 
local dealers, and whenever any grain is held over this is generally 
loft upon platforms raised above the ground and covered with sail 
cloth. In the great majority of cases the implements are left on the 
lands where they were last worked, and, when they are put under 
cover, this is not done in a satisfactory way. A farm was visited hj 
the writer that was supposed to be representative of the progres- 
sive type, and so it actually was in many ways. The machines were 
kept in a barn with a galvanized-iron roof (the regular type of roof 
in South Africa), but this barn was uncovered at the front, so that 
dust and wind had free access to it. There were about 20 machines 
of various kinds in that barn, all with a thick dust covering, and so 
far as could be seen not one machine among them was complete. 
Such parts as bolts, nuts, grease cups, and others of which general 
use can be made are indiscriminately taken out from complete ma- 
chines if they are required for other machines. This accounts for 
the small service that is often obtained from good machinery. 

At one of the agricultural shows the writer had an amusing ex- 
perience. He was conversing with the gentleman in charge of the 
exhibit of a well-known machinery importer when a farmer came 
up and stated that a plow which he had purchased from that firm 



66 AGKICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

had proved the most satisfactory he ever had and that for this reason 
he wanted another one like it, because the plow that he had had 
already done its work. He was asked how long ago he had pur- 
chased this plow, and from his answer it was learned that he had 
bought it three years previously. This type of plow was constructed 
almost entirely of steel and was as strong and well made a plow as 
has ever been sold in South Africa, and still the farmer was satisfied 
with the three years' service it had given him. In the hands of a 
careful farmer it should have been good for nearly a lifetime. 

The local dealers' example is not conducive to the farmer's protect- 
ing and keeping his implements properly. As a general rule the 
country storekeepers have an assortment of the machines they sell 
either in front of their establishments in the open or at an adjoin- 
ing yard, where wind, rain, and sunshine unceasingly play havoc 
with them — to such an extent that they are far from being in a satis- 
factory condition when they are sold to the farmer. 

Cases are also frequent in which the farmer receives machines 
wrongly set up, which fact may perhaps not be discovered until some 
irreparable damage has been done to them (in most cases without the 
farmer being able to realize it) . 

In view of the little care that is given to farm machinery and the 
unsatisfactory labor in whose charge it is put, it is questionable 
whether there is another country where the farmers get less service 
from their machinery than is the case in South Africa. The native, 
when properly coached and instructed, is not a bad mechanic and is 
happy in the handling of a good tool, but unless he is closely super- 
vised he is the most wasteful worker imaginable. It is stated that 
when he has once operated a machine that he liked and afterwards 
works for another farmer using a different type of machine, he 
will destroy the utility of that machine until the farmer is compelled 
to acquire such a machine as has taken the fancy of the native. In 
some cases he is unreliable to the extent of willfully breaking parts 
of the machine in order to remain idle until parts to replace those 
broken have been obtained. 

AGRICULTURAL LABOR. 

NATIVES. 

Strange as it may seem, less than 7 per cent of the native popula- 
tion of South Africa is employed as farm laborers, and, despite 
the relatively small number of farm holders, the scarcity of labor is 
one of the chief factors retarding the agricultural development of 
the country. This shortage has been most acutely felt since the de- 
velopment of the mining industry, for, although labor on the land 
is preferred by the natives to anj^ other, the high wages paid at the 
mines have attracted them in increasing numbers. The strongest 
causes that draw the natives from their locations to seek work are 
probably the desire to obtain money to purchase wives and the laws 
of various Provinces which compel the natives to pay hut taxes. 
The adult native male is subject to a yearly hut tax, var^dng from 
$0.75 to $10 per capita, with, at times, an additional sum for every 
wife after the first. This tax must be paid in coin. Considering the 
large number of natives in South Africa it will be seen that they are 



MAEKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 57 

the taxpayers of the country to a much greater extent than is gen- 
erally realized. They pay in direct taxation as much, at least, as the 
farmers do, and they are indirectly taxed by a customs duty of 25 
per cent assessed on the importation of such articles as they are 
supposed to use. Aside from the inducements referred to, there is 
very little reason, from the standpoint of the natives, why they 
should work. It is hardly to be expected that the descendants of a 
race that for ages have been able to select the most fertile spots of a 
country abounding in game — -living under a sky that reduces to a 
minimum the need of shelter and clothing — will easily develop 
habits of steady industry. The visitor to a Kaffir kraal can not fail 
to notice how little influence the white man's mode of life has so 
far had on the native surroundings, and how capable the natives 
are of providing for their limited comforts and wants. Through- 
out South Africa a minimum of labor suffices to maintain the natives 
in plenty, and except when a failure of crops occurs only a small 
number of them will offer themselves for work. Family responsi- 
bilities hardly count at all, as the land is nearly always held on the 
communistic principle, and, while wealth is nearly impossible, real 
poverty is unknown among the natives. 

Certain schemes have been devised to remove the reluctance of 
the natives to offer themselves for work. Legislation has been enacted 
in certain Provinces that obliges all adult natives of certain reserves 
to labor for three months every year outside their district or in default 
to pay an additional tax. Another scheme is to employ the authority 
of the native chiefs, who, generally speaking, are not averse to 
compelling their subjects to work when any benefit accrues to them- 
selves. With the disappearance of the power of the chiefs over the 
lives and goods of the natives, their influence in this respect will^ 
doubtless, gradually wane. The rapid increase in the numbers of the 
natives, who clearly overcrowd some locations and reserves, may 
account for most of the labor now obtainable, and this circumstance 
will also provide the source of the labor required for the future ex- 
pansion of South African farming. In a few cases education h?s led 
the natives to habits of industry, and in others it has fostered the 
desire to procure the means of acquiring necessities and comforts — a 
desire created by the knowledge of better conditions. The tendency 
to frame laws whereby any native seeking employment must contract 
for a certain definite period of time may also improve the situation. 
As matters stand at present, there is nearly always a great deal of 
uncertainty with respect to the securing of adequate labor supplies 
and the keeping of the laborers long enough to be of any practical 
benefit. Farmers are often confronted with the danger that at the 
approach of the growing season, or when the crops are ready to 
harvest, the natives may decide to return to their locations, leaving 
the proprietors entirely helpless to prosecute or finish the work in 
hand. In the wheat-growing districts in the southAvestern part of 
Cape Province, where the " colored " population is in greater evidence, 
these unfavorable labor conditions do not prevail to the same extent, 
as social customs approaching those of Europe and similar countries 
are gradually growing up. The colored natives known as " Cape 
boys " are a much better type of worker than th^ raw natives. In 
the Orange Free State little difficulty is experienced in obtaining 
labor and in keeping it for a reasonable length of time. 



58 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

RATE OF WAGES AND BASIS OF EMPLOYMENT. 

The rate of wages paid to native farm laborers varies greatly in 
different districts, but, speaking generally, it ranges from $2.50 to 
$10 per month, with food, in the Cape Province, the Orange Free 
State, and NataJ, and considerably more in some parts of the Trans- 
vaal, because of the proximity of the latter to the mines, where the 
natives earn much higher wages. A certain amount of labor is at 
times given by natives without payment, or for a very small pay- 
ment, in return for the privilege of living on the farm, cultivating 
a certain portion of the land, and keeping a certain number of stock. 
This system commends itself to farmers having land that has not been 
fully occupied, but it will probably be discontinued as the land be- 
comes more valuable and fully utilized by the farmers. In some parts 
of South Africa natives were being employed in increasing numbers a 
few years ago to work for white farmers on shares, and this arrange- 
ment seemed to work well for both the farmer and the native, the 
latter showing much more industry when he had a substantial objec- 
tive and inducement before him. This naturally led other natives to 
prefer this basis of employment, and the practice increased to a point 
where certain farmers experienced difficulty in securing the labor 
they required, with the result that they exerted their influence to 
have a law passed in 1913 making it illegal to contract with natives 
for farm work on chares. 

VAEIED OPINIONS CONCERNING USEFULNESS OF NATIVE LABOR. 

There is much difference of opinion concerning the usefulness of 
the native as a farm laborer. The kind of labor that he ordinarily 
produces is considered extremely inefficient in the great majority 
of cases. He proves not only lazy and indifferent, but careless and 
consciously wasteful as well. It is natural that such should be the 
case, for he often receives scant encouragement and inducement to 
be otherwise. There are some farmers, on the other hand, who have 
succeeded in commanding both the respect and the loyalty of their 
natives and who are perfectly satisfied that, given proper working 
conditions, the native is both a useful and profitable asset in South 
African agriculture. The most noted agriculturist of Natal, a man 
whose dairies are found in the principal cities of Natal and Trans- 
vaal Provinces, has a farm devoted to the rearing of calves on the 
most scientific methods known. On that farm all the work is done 
by natives, not a single white man being employed there. One of 
the largest Durban firms importing farm machinery employs natives 
for setting up the machines as received from overseas before ship- 
ping them to the interior, and its manager states that their work 
leaves nothing to be desired as regards the conscientiousness, ability, 
and expedition with which it is performed. White laborers, in his 
opinion, could hardly be expected to do that work better or more 
quickly. 

As will be seen, the general conditions with respect to the use of 
native labor in South African farming at the present time could 
hardly be more unsatisfactory. If, in spite of this, farming in gen- 
eral has progressed, there is reason to expect a material improvement 
in agriculture as the outcome of the ameliorated labor conditions that 
are certain to obtain in the future. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 59 

EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOE NATIVES. 

A fact of no small importance in connection with the native races 
of South Africa is the establishment of the South African Native 
College at Fort Hare, near Alice. This has been promoted for the 
purpose of providing higher education and training in arts, science, 
agriculture, and commerce, and with the primary object of giving 
efficient and uniform training to native teachers. It is noteworthy 
that the natives themselves have contributed substantially to the 
funds necessary for this undertaking. The Transkeian General 
Council has for some years contributed at the rate of $10,000 per 
annum and has recently provided $50,000. The Basuto Council has 
contributed $10,000. Mone5^s have been contributed b}^ various 
churches, and the Union Government contributed during 1915 the 
sum of $3,000. It is affirmed that during the past few years 500 
South African natives have gone to America to train at the higher 
educational institutions for colored people that have been estab- 
lished there. 

Special attention is to be given by this college to agricultural edu- 
cation, both theoretical and practical — a branch of study the 
economic importance of which can not be exaggerated. The native 
is notoriously the most wasteful agriculturist in the world, and 
competent authorities have estimated that under reasonably econom- 
ical methods of agriculture the Transkeian territories to-day could 
support five or six times their present population. In some respects 
the natives, in matters of education, are outdistancing the white 
people, at least in certain sections of the country. The Superin- 
tendent of General Education, in his report for the year ended 
September 30, 1914, states that there was an increase of 125 schools, 
of which 50 were for Europeans against 75 for non-Europeans. The 
total enrollment comprises 102,665 white pupils, against 138,471 
colored, an increase of 5,890 whites against 12,159 colored. 

EAST INDIANS. 

In Natal (for mam^ years a purely British colony and the best- 
watered section of South Africa), notwithstanding the fact that its 
native population outnumbers the white 10 to 1. the cultivation of 
sugar cane, tea, and other crops requiring- careful tillage and unre- 
mitting attention was seriously jeopardized until Indians were im- 
ported into the colony. The number of Asiatics in 1911 was esti- 
mated at 122,000, and these, for the most part, were employed by 
white planters. Attempts have been made to encourage Indians to 
become farmeis on their own account, but this has been strongly 
opposed by the white growers, as they fear that the success of the 
Indian in that capacity would, in a short time, deprive them of the 
Indian labor. The Indian, given favorable treatment and encour- 
agement, makes a gcod farmer — far superior to the native in the 
growing of sugar cane and other crops requiring careful and in- 
tensive cultivation. In some cases white farmers have given Indians 
V piece of land as pa5^ment for their labor, and the latter have proved 
that they can easily become proficient agriculturists. Returns of 
more than $200 per acre per annum have been quite frequently ob- 
tained by Indians working en their own account. It is estimated 
that Indians are at present cultivating about 3,000 acres of sugar 



60 AGRICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEBY. 

cane on their own responsibility. The wages paid to Indian farm 
laborers vary from $5 to $15 per month. 

WHITES. 

White labor so far has been used hardly at all in South xVfrica 
for agricultural purposes, but there are indications that this condi- 
tion is tending to pass away. As a matter of fact, there are a large 
number of white men in South Africa who would be far better off 
if they were encouraged to become farm laborers. It is estimated 
that the class of people called in South Africa " poor whites " num- 
bers about. 45,000 — besides those who may have reached that condi- 
tion as a consequence of the last drought. The problems connected 
with the indigent condition of the poor white population of the 
country are among the most difficult and acute for South Africa to 
solve, and agriculture has lately been looked upon as the industry 
that, in the main, may facilitate the rescue of these people from their 
deplorable situation. 

GOVERNMENTAL EFFOETS TO AMELIORATE CONDITIONS. 

The Government has been exceedingly preoccupied with this prob- 
lem, owing to its increasing dimensions and the apparent inability 
to devise means to solve it except in a slow and cautious way. So 
far, however, the Government has placed about 10,000 of these people 
in the railway service, in road making, and in other engineering 
work, as construction laborers, paying them much higher wages than 
would be paid if natives were employed. They are gradually being 
led into habits of industry and self-reliance, and are being helped 
to fit themselves for more congenial and profitable occupations. 
One thousand of these men have already ceased to be laborers and 
have become employees of the railway department, where all grades 
are open to them, so that some aspire to become station masters (one 
or two have actually succeeded), and more of them to become fore- 
men. Their children are educated in railway schools, and when the 
men themselves are employed in the cities as carriage cleaners, etc., 
they are induced to attend night schools. 

A large number of them, showing the possibility of becoming 
good farmers, have been established in farm colonies maintained by 
the Government. In the Kakamas Labor Colony 5,000 acres of land 
have been put under irrigation, and 3,000 of these people, including 
their families, are kept there. In the Bucklands Estate a dam 
containing water to irrigate 800 acres is being enlarged to irrigate 
3,000 acres, and all the work there is done by whites. In the south- 
western part of Natal 4,000 acres of land are entirely worked by 
these men. Before these " poor Avhites " can become farm laborers 
they usually need to be taken in hand by the Government and pre- 
pared for that class of work. A bureau of white labor is maintained 
by the Government that is promoting the employment of white 
laborers on private farms, and several hundred of these men have 
been placed. The Government provides free transportation for farm 
laborers proceeding to farm work. Encouragement is given by 
promising to settle them on the land on their own account when they 
give proof of their ability to work it intelligently. In other words, 
they pass through a probationary period either on the railway or 
on the land, with generous assistance for those who show themselves 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



61 



able to take advantage of it. Of the men so far placed on private 
farms, 90 per cent are said to have made good, and after they have 
learned their craft and acquired the habit of work they have shown 
a disposition to become dependable and prosperous Avorkers. There 
is little doubt that white labor will be employed more generally on 
the land than it is at present, but any movement in this direction 
wdll probably be more gradual than has been the case in connection 
with the railway and engineering works, where the laborers, as a rule, 
work in gangs. The so-called " poor whites," when they start work, 
lack all ideas of farming and require such supervision as can not well 
be given often in farm work. They also lack at that time the moral 
fiber to begin and cease work at the proper time. These difficulties 
have to be overcome before the " poor whites " will become fitted for 
agricultural work in large numbers. 

A difficulty in the way of poor ^^hite men taking up a piece of land 
and developing it without native labor is that whereas in other 
countries a white man may take up some land for farming and be 
willing to do some other work in the off season if he lacks capital or 
until his way is clear, in South Africa he is in competition with the 
native, whom tradition has given a practically exclusive title to all 
the manual labor. The black man, so to speak, has usurped the right 
of the white man to work and has thus been instrumental in rendering 
him unfitted for work of any description. It can be seen, therefore, 
that unless the white farmer has means to fall back upon and to sus- 
tain him for the first year or two until the land is able to support 
him, he will find it almost impossible to aspire to become a farmer. 

Among certain classes of the farming population of South Africa 
a movement has sprung up to have the Government make it possible 
for the " poor Avhites '' to take up a piece of land and work it for 
their own account. This is not likely to prove successful. They must 
first go to work for others, and as they show the requisite competence 
and self-reliance the time will then be more favorable for giving 
them facilities to become independent farmers. Otherwise, at the 
slightest difficulty, they relapse irito their original condition, after 
money and patience have been exhausted and the land, quite pos- 
sibly, has been ruined. 

nujMber of persons engaged in agriculture and related activities. 

According to the census of 1911, the following persons were in pos- 
session, working, and cultivating land, raising or dealing in animals, 
or following pursuits subsidiary thereto in South Africa : 



Divisions. 



Cape Province 

Bechuanaland 

Trans ceian Territories 

Natal 

Zululand 

Transvaal 

Orange Free State 

Total 



European or white. 



Male. Female. 



61, 758 

2,619 

2,606 

6,567 

377 

36, 357 

30. 1.53 



14,081 

325 

892 

2,257 

95 

8,809 

9,526 



140,437 I 35,985 



South African 
natives. 



Male. Female. 



55, 829 
2,870 
7,190 

32, 692 
3,266 

57, 877 

52, 925 



19, 140 

475 

2,903 

9,052 

489 

19, 691 

25, 065 



212,649 I 76,815 



Other colored 
persons. 



Male. Female. 



42,480 

1,197 

583 

18, 771 

847 

2,922 

3,348 



7,765 
226 
277 

5,972 
440 
776 

1,502 



70,148 ! 16,958 



Total. 



201,053 

7,712 

14,451 

75,311 

5,514 

126,4.32 

122, 519 



552,992 



62 AGKICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 

Foi .r schools of agriculture and several experiment stations serve 
in the main to educate the rising generations of South African 
agriculturists. In 1914-15 the appropriation for agricultural edu- 
cation amounted to nearly $600,000, but owing to reduced expendi- 
tures made necessary by the war, that for the following fiscal year 
was reduced to $365,000. The importance that the Union attaches to 
the education of the farming community can be discerned from these 
figures. In the following schools horticulture, poultry raising, hus- 
bandry, cropping, and stock farming are taught, besides the special 
features indicated: 

Elsenhurg^ Cape Province.— Th^ oldest of the schools is situated 
about 30 miles from Cape Town. Area of grounds, 1,700 acres. Spe* 
cial features of this school are horticulture, viticulture, cereals, and 
Turkish tobacco. 

Grootfontein^ Gape Province. — Outside the town of Middleburg. 
Area of lands, 27,000 acres. Special features are agriculture with 
irrigation under Karroo conditions, ostriches, merino sheep, and 
angora goats. 

Potchsfstroom^ Transvaal. — About 83 miles southwest of Johannes- 
burg. Special features of the instruction are agriculture under high- 
land conditions, cultivation of crops under irrigation and other- 
wise, cattle, maize and other cereals. 

Cedara^ Natal. — Fourteen miles to the north of Pietermaritzburg. 
Area of lands, 3,600 acres. Special features are subtropical agricul- 
ture, forestry, wattle growing, cattle, and maize. 

In the Orange Free State no similar institution is in actual opera- 
tion at present, but one such establishment at Glen, near Bloemfon- 
tein, will be ready to receive students within a short time. More 
than. $200,000 is being spent at present on the erection of the neces- 
sary buildings there, which are rapidly nearing completion. 

COURSES or INSTRUCTION. 

Courses of instruction of one, two, or three years are given. The 
one-year course is intended to meet the requirements of those who 
have had some farming experience and of those who desire to obtain 
an insight into practical working and up-to-date methods. Science 
subjects are, however, largely omitted. Students are afforded, in 
particular, an opportunity of becoming conversant with the opera- 
tion of agricultural implements not generally met with in ordinary 
farming practice. The two-year course is similar to the one-year 
course, and in addition agricultural chemistry, geology, botany, zool- 
ogy, and entomology are dealt with. In this course the time devoted 
to class and to practical work is almost equal. On satisfactory com- 
pletion of the course students are aw^arded the " diploma " of the 
school, and any subject passed with sufficient credit is marked " with 
distinction." The three-year course is for students who have been 
awarded the " diploma " of the school and desire to continue their 
studies. Advanced studies can be taken on particular subjects, such 
as agriculture, horticulture, and viticulture and wine making. 

To foster the dairy industry a special course in dairying is given 
at the Grootf ontein College, and on the completion of the course^ 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 63 

which extends over six months, students, in order to qualify for the 
certificate in dairying, must gain practical experience at an approved 
butter and cheese factory. This special course, together with factory 
experience, is intended as a suitable training for those desirous of 
qualifying for positions of responsibility in dairies. 

At all the schools of agriculture short courses in the practice and 
science of agriculture are given during the winter (June to August), 
and are mainly for young farmers and farmers' sons. The courses 
are also arranged so as to be useful to teachers of agricultural sub- 
jects in rural schools, and the attendance of women is encouraged for 
instruction in suitable subjects. These courses are divided into two 
periods of 14 days each. The lecturers at the schools and sometimes 
the chiefs and technical officers of the various divisions of the de- 
partment of agriculture give instruction at these courses in connec- 
tion with the subjects selected. 

FEES A>sD COST OF MAINTENANCE. 

The fees are $250 per annum for the one, tAvo, and three 3'ear 
courses, $125 for the six-months dairy course, and $12.50 for each 
period of a fortnight of the short vacation courses. With the present 
basis of attendance, the Government's expense in maintaining these 
colleges is probably $500 per student annually, after all items of 
income have been considered. 

WORK OUTSIDE OF CLASSROOMS. 

The stall's of these colleges, in addition to their work therein, ad- 
vise and instruct farmers in respect to various phases of agriculture 
by means of ccrrespondence, publications in the press, and lectures 
and demonstrations given at different centers as circumstances per- 
mit. Monthlj^ notes are sent to the agricultural press on the progress 
of each institution and the results of the work performed. Experi- 
ments in crops and manures are conducted at the schools and ex- 
perimental stations and in cooperation with farmers. Analyses of 
agricultural materials and dairy products are undertaken, as well as 
the testing of seeds and identification of plants and insects. A cer- 
tain amount of pure-bred stock is annually offered for sale at public 
auction by the various schools, and approved varieties of seed are also 
disposed of to the public. 

SCHOLARSHIPS. 

At the four schools of agriculture the Government gives annually 
a number of bursaries, tenable for two years and held by approved 
students whose parents or guardians are not in a position to pay the 
full school fees. Also, under the ordinary conditions, a certain 
number of valuable scholarships ($750 per annum) are offered each 
year for special students overseas in live stock and agricultural sub- 
jects, or in some other branch of agricultural science. These scholar- 
ships, which are ordinarily available for two years, are granted to 
students Avho have completed a brilliant course at one of the schools 
of agriculture, or to others who are graduates of the Cape University 



64 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



in science or otherAvise worthy of a scholarship. The holders of these 
scholarships, on their return, are to enter the Government service for 
a specified period. Fcr the year ended March 31, 1914, the sum of 
$21,460 was expended in connection with these scholarships. Nearly 
one-half the holders of them are studying in colleges in the United 
States, and 21 other persons from South Africa were taking courses 
in 1914 in foreign colleges of agriculture without any Government 
assistance. 

ATTENDANCE. 

The attendance at these schools of agriculture in recent years 
has been as follows : 



Schools. 


1914 


1915 


1916 


Elsenburg 


24 
79 
31 

68 


13 
41 
27 
23 


23 


Grootfontcin 


60 


Ce iara 


7 


Potchefstroom - - - 


41 








Total 


202 


104 


131 







A certain amount of instruction in the elements of animal and 
field husbandry, botany, etc., is given in the primary schools, and 
the Native Affairs Department has also established agricultural insti- 
tutions in various parts of the native territories. 

The entire agricultural education scheme is in charge of one of 
the two undersecretaries of agriculture, and there is no question that 
the work of the Government in this connection is carried along and 
fostered with both intelligence and enterprise. The farming com- 
munity thus far has not given altogether adequate support to the 
admirable facilities for agricultural education. 



LOANING OF BOOKS TO FARMERS AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. 

One of the latest schemes of the Department of Agriculture to 
advance the study of agricultural science is to loan to the farmers 
of the Union the books of its extensive library. These are loaned 
free of co'^t and forwarded and returned without expense to the 
farmers. The books available for circulation in this manner com- 
prise a great variety of agricultural subjects, and they are classified 
as " elementary " or " advanced " to provide for the class of educa- 
tion or information that it may be desired to obtain. 

Before the outbreak of the war the Government published ''The 
Agricultural Journal of South Africa," a monthly magazine printed 
in both English and Dutch editions, the circulation being 24,500 
copies of the former and 9,500 copies of the latter. This journal was 
distributed free of charge to the bona fide farmers, and approxi- 
mately one-half of the cost of printing was derived from the adver- 
tising"^ charges. It is not clear whether, when the war is over, the 
publication of this journal will be resumed. The privately owned 
agricultural press of South Africa is making good headway and 
}3roving most efficacious. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 65 

USE OF FERTILIZERS. 

One of the chief obstacles hitherto in connection with the use of 
commercial fertilizers in the interior Provinces of South Africa 
has been their expensiveness, due to the high cost of transportation 
inland. Since South African soils, as has been shown elsewhere, are 
not generall}^ a ery fertile, a more extended use of fertilizers would 
assuredly result in much greater yields than have been obtained so 
far. Commercial fertilizers are being used to an increasing extent, 
as is indicated by the following figures, showing the value of imports 
during recent years: 1907, $169,568; 1911, $499,906; 1912, $605,932; 
1915, $853,273. The imports in 1915 were composed of the following 
classes of fertilizers: Basic slag, $102,338; bone manures, $42,708; 
guano, $13,865 ; potash manures, $3,270; sulphate of ammonia, $3,835 ; 
superphosphates, $536,011 ; all others, $151,246. It will be seen that 
the superphosphates formed the bulk of the commercial manures 
imported. This type of fertilizer is extensively used in connection 
with wheat and maize growing. All progressive farmers at present 
use superphosphates to a greater or less extent. 

During the year 1914, 8,133 tons of guano were obtained from 
the Guano Islands on the west coast of South Africa, which are the 
property of the Union Government. This guano is the excretion of 
sea birds and is said to be of finest quality. The analytical composi- 
tion shows it to be composed as follows: Nitrogen, 11.63 per cent; 
potash, 2.87 per cent; phosphoric oxide soluble in water, 3.82 per 
cent; phosphoric oxide soluble in citrate solution, 9.12 per cent; 
total phosphoric acid, 10.24 per cent; lime, 9.86 per cent. When a 
substantial supply of this guano is available for sale the Government 
invites applications from farmers for the purchase of it ; the orders 
received have always been four or five times greater than the amount 
available for allotment. The grain farmers of the southwestern dis- 
tricts of the Cape Province, who are acquainted with the good quali- 
ties of this guano for their soils, are particularly eager to obtain 
large supplies, and nearly 85 per cent of the guano produced is pur- 
chased by them. 

This guano in 1915 was sold at $37.50 per ton of 2,000 pounds, 
bringing an income of a little more than $300,000, to which must be 
added about $40,000 as proceeds of the sale of penguin eggs, seal- 
skins, and seal oil. The cost of obtaining the guano and these by- 
products is about $150,000 per annum. The production of guano 
in recent years has been as follows: 1911, 4,647 tons; 1912, 6,372 
tons: 1913; 7,441 tons; 1914, 8,133 tons. 

Works designed to increase the breeding area have recently been 
constructed and are expected to result in much larger yields of guano. 
Owing to the size of the farms and the sparseness of the white popu- 
lation, the amount of stable manure produced is not sufficient to per- 
mit of its use on a large scale, and the comparatively small amount 
available on most South African farms is chiefly utilized in growing 
auxiliary crops such as potatoes and vegetables, root crops, etc. 
Farmers have generally attached little importance to stable and stock 
manures, but more interest in making good use of them has been 
observed of late. There seems to be every probability that the private 
manufacture of sulphate will be undertaken at an early date. 

1276°— 17— No. 146 5 



66 AGKICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

DRY-LAND FARMING. 

The question of dry-land farming is being discussed in South 
Africa at present with a great divergence of opinion. It is con- 
tended on the one side that the prevalent dryness of the winters, 
absence of snow, and great evaporation make dry farming in South 
Africa a different undertaking from what it is in America. On the 
other hand, the advocates of dry farming claim that with a more 
thorough preparation and cultivation of the soil, together with the 
careful selection of drought-resisting varieties of seed, the area of 
South Africa that, so far, has been considered capable of sustain- 
ing crops could be largely increased. This view appears to b.e gain- 
ing in favor, and there is no question that if these principles were ex- 
tensively applied much better crops would be harvested than has 
hitherto been the case. One can reasonably look forward to the popu- 
larization of the dry-farming practice in South Africa, since the 
results that many farmers have already obtained have been very 
satisfactory. Exhaustive experiments have been conducted by the 
Department of Agriculture with better methods of soil cultivation 
to ascertain how moisture can be best conserved to grow and mature 
crops, and many farmers throughout the dry sections of the Union 
have found that the application of the methods pursued in these ex- 
periments has enabled them to reap more profitable harvests on their 
own farms. The conservation of soil moisture, the preparation of 
the seed bed, the method of seeding, and the selection of seed varieties 
require the greatest consideration in many parts of the Union where 
the rainfall is relatively small, and it is satisfactory to see that good 
results have been obtained in practically ever 3^ instance where cor- 
rect methods have been applied. 

One of the largest growers of maize in the western Transvaal, 
where the rainfall is considered too small to grow maize under or- 
dinary conditions, stated recently that 30 acres planted with Chester 
County maize produced 256 bags of 203 pounds each, notwithstanding 
the fact that the district had been regarded as one where maize 
c<5uld not be profitably grown. He added : " With our increased 
knowledge through the system of dry-land farming, I feel assured 
that even better results than this can be obtained in the future." 
Another farmer in the western Orange Free State reports a some- 
what novel manner of producing a crop under dry-land methods as 
he understood them. With a rainfall of 6.96 inches during the grow- 
ing season, he harvested 361 bags of maize from 100 acres. This 
had been planted at the rate of 4^ pounds of seed to the acre. His 
method was to summer-fallow the land at a depth of 8 inches in 
January (the middle of summer). After plowing he used a zigzag 
harrow, and, owing to the presence of weeds, the land was plowed 
again in June, and left rough. It was again plowed in November 
(spring) and planted the first week in December. It was neither 
harrowed nor cultivated during the growing season. There were 
few farmers within a great distance from his farm who could 
show that season even so modest a crop. 

The Government maintains a division of dry farming, which is in 
charge of an experiment station at Lichtenburg and of smaller sta- 
tions at Pretoria, Warm Baths, Pietersburg, and Prieska. Other sta- 
tions are contemplated for De Aar and Graaf Reinet. Demonstra- 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 67 

tions of dry farming are also being undertaken at GrootA^ei, Orange 
Free State, and Grootfontein and Vryburg, Cape Province. Munici- 
palities can now apply for a dry-land station to be established in 
their commonages on the dollar-per-dollar principle, and in a few 
cases advantage has been taken of this assistance to undertake ex- 
perimental work of this character. The number of such stations 
will undoubtedly increase very substantially when the Government's 
finances after the war permit it to encourage the extension of this 
idea. The work of the Government in connection with dry farming 
has undoubtedly exercised a widespread and deep influence upon the 
agriculture of the Union, by inducing farmers to devote more at- 
tention to the timely and proper cultivation of the ground and to put 
to profitable use large areas of land which, but for the enlightenment 
and stimulus offered by the agencies mentioned, would probably not 
have been cultivated at all. 

COOPERATION AMONG FARMERS. 

In discussing any problem affecting South African farming, and 
that of cooperation in particular, it is necessary to consider the 
environment and sparseness of the population, as well as the fact 
that it is not homogeneous but divided into two races speaking dif- 
ferent languages. These conditions have engendered a sense of inde- 
pendence and a lack of desire for mutual help, instead of the 
cooperation found where farms are small and the struggle for exist- 
ence more severe. Since the days of early settlement the physical 
features of the country, the character of its population, its climate, 
the presence of the natives and of wild animals have made independ- 
ence and self-reliance necessary for success in farming. These con- 
ditions have retarded a recognition of the new phases of farming life 
brought about by the advent of the smaller farm, the increase of 
animal diseases, and the competition with the world's markets, call- 
ing for cooperation and improved methods of farming. Farmers the 
world over are conservative, but the Dutch farmer of South Africa,^ 
coming chiefly from the earliest settlers' stock, has, through the cir- 
cumstances surrounding his pioneer life, developed an independence 
and conservatism from which it is difficult for him to break away, 
and cooperation, so much to be desired in South Africa, has on this 
account been very slow in developing. 

A division of cooperative societies is maintained under the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, devoted to the establishment and supervision 
of such societies. Eighteen of these were in existence during the 
fiscal year 1914-15, the majority of which were domiciled in the 
Transvaal. The lack of sufficient funds has caused this divisi( n to 
discourage the expansion of the movement in the Orange Free State, 
and the absence of legislation has also compelled it to withhold its 
assistance from this class of societies in the Cape and Natal 
Provinces, where a great deal of interest has been manifested lately 
in the cooperative movement. Detailed figures for the business of 
these societies are not available for the fiscal year 1914-15. The 
latest figures published, those of the fiscal year 1913-14, show that at 
that time the total membership was 11,558. There Avere handled by 
them 639,452 bags of maize, $437,000 worth of other products, and 
about $960,000 worth of farming requisites. The position of these 



68 AGRIOULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MAOHINEEY. 

societies has been somewhat precarious up to this time owing chiefly 
to the lack of competent men to manage them. With possibly one 
or two exceptions these societies are composed of Dutch farmers, who 
so far have not generally realized the necessity for a systematic 
accounting and administration of the affairs of their societies. The 
Government's division, in cooperation with the Land and Agricul- 
tural Bank, is chiefly intended to j)romote the adoption of adequate 
administrative methods in the business of the cooperative societies. 
Little has been accomplished hitherto in this respect, and it is doubt- 
ful whether energetic measures will be taken in connection with the 
cooperative movement until a uniform law applying to the four 
Provinces of the Union is enacted. It has been the purpose of the 
Government to place an adequate law on the statute-books to pro- 
mote the expansion of the cooperative movement, and this is likely 
to be one of the first questions to be taken up after the war, when 
sufficient funds will be available to render financial assistance to any 
cooperative societies that may be established under the intended 
legislation. 

The majority of the societies in existence are federated and under 
the control of a central agency for cooperative societies, which has 
proved a yqtj effective organization. The majority of the officers 
of this agency were once connected with the division of cooperative 
societies, and its existence has enabled the smaller bodies to effect 
economies in their transactions, as a result of the larger quantities 
of goods that have been sold and bought collectively. 

On January 31, 1914, a statement published by the Land and Agri- 
cultural Bank shoAvs that the total amount due to that institution by 
cooperative societies in respect to advances was nearly $1,500,000. It 
must be remarked that several of these societies are being financially 
assisted by banks other than the Land and Agricultural Bank. 

The agricultural machinery handled by these societies has been 
bought by them from the various importing firms in South Africa — 
the societies in certain cities acting as local agents for them. It 
would be undesirable at the present time to enter into business rela- 
tions with these societies in respect to the sale of agricultural ma- 
chinery, owing, chiefly, to their unsatisfactory financial position. 
The business is a very small one thus far, the value of the farming 
requisites given as sold by them being the retail prices received. 

There are a large number of cooperative societies throughout the 
Union that are independent and altogether without Government con- 
trol or assistance. These are in evidence principally in the south- 
western part of Cape Province, in connection with the wine, fruit, 
and tobacco industries, and in Natal in connection with maize, dairy- 
ing, tobacco, and wattle bark. The most prominent of these socie- 
ties is undoubtedly the Natal Agricultural Cooperative Union (Ltd.), 
of Pietermaritzburg, with a membership of more than 2,000. Its 
turnover for the year 1915 was $891,620. A special department for 
the sale of agricultural implements and fertilizers was established a 
short time ago, which is said to be very successful. It is understood 
that this concern is prepared to purchase directly from manufac- 
turers. Considering the support it receives from its members, it 
should be able to give satisfactory representation so far as Natal 
Province is concerned. There may be the drawback, however, in do- 
ing business with this Union at the present time, that the Durban im- 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 69 

porting firms may refuse to liandle in the Orange Free State and 
Transvaal Provinces (where the Durban importers operate exten- 
sively and almost exclusively) the goods of manufacturers selling to 
the Union. 

There is no doubt that the cooperative movement in the Union of 
South Africa is destined to become an economic force of great im- 
portance as soon as the Government is able to devise ways and means 
to encourage it and to extend to it advice and financial support. It is 
a source of gratification that the Dutch farmers, generally so con- 
servative, should have taken hold of this idea. Cooperation should 
be fostered because conditions are such that it will prove difficult to 
induce individual business men to undertake the establishment of the 
industries vital to the progress of farming, such as butter and cheese 
factories, tobacco warehouses, fruit packing, oil-crushing plants, etc., 
on account of the absence of close settlement and the sparseness of the 
farms. 

FINANCIAL AID EXTENDED BY GOVERNMENT TO FARMERS. 

To assist deserving men, and with a view to encouraging agri- 
culture, the South African Land and Agricultural Bank was estab- 
lished in 1912 by the Government, to consolidate the various institu- 
tions of that character existing in the country before the Union was 
formed. The nominal capital of this institution is limited to $30.- 
000,000, and the administration is controlled by a central board in 
Pretoria and advisory boards in other parts of the Union. The 
functions of this bank are to make advances for the purchase of stock, 
fencing material, boring, dipping tanks, planting of trees, vineyards, 
sugar cane, and in connection with other undertakings that will pro- 
mote agriculture, such as dairying, preparation of tobacco for sale 
and export, etc. The advances are made for periods not exceeding 
30 years, and are repayable in installments beginning the sixth 3^ear 
after the loan was made; 5 per cent interest per annum is charged 
for the first 5 years and 7 per cent after that time. The bank has 
also power to advance money to and guarantee the performance of 
contracts undertaken by cooperative societies. Such advances are 
made upon the joint and several liability of every member of the 
society. The operation of the Land and Agricultural Bank has 
proved very beneficial, as it has enabled necessary improvements to 
be carried out that the farmers w^ould have found it impossible to 
undertake t)n their own capital. Many new farmers have been, with 
its assistance, settled on the land, and the advances made on fences, 
dipping tanks, boring, etc., have done much to put farming on a 
sounder basis. 

Unfortunately, the operations of the bank have been much re- 
stricted during the past three years, owing to the financial demands 
on the Government in connection with the war. At the end of De- 
cember, 1915, the sum of $1,719,650 Avas owing to the bank by co- 
operative societies, and during that year $552,500 was advanced to 
them. The applications for loans received during 1915 were 401; 
in 1914, 1,268; and in 1913, 3,889.. It will thus be easy to realize the 
large volume of business and loans that it handles when its opera- 
tions are unrestricted. Farmers may borrow sums of not less than 
$250 nor more than $10,000, with the security of a freehold or quit 



70 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MAOHINEEY. 

rent land. In connection with the cooperative movement the bank 
to a great extent directs and aids the cooperative societies to make 
the most of the advantages that concerted effort will bring to their 
members, the relationship being, so to speak, that of a subsidiary 
concern to a parent body. 

There appears to be no reason why the farmers of the Union of 
South Africa should not be perfectly satisfied with the paternal view 
that the Government takes in anything connected with agriculture. 
There is no land tax, the rates of freight for farming produce and 
farming requisites are extremely moderate, the excise tax on local 
wines and brandies is exceedingly low, and the customs duties on 
articles largely imported for farmers are relatively insignificant. 
Imported food and drink, on the other hand, are subject to heavy 
duties, designed to encourage and assist farmers in profitably dis- 
posing of their produce. It might be difficult to find another country 
with a Government so eager to assist and encourage the farming 
community. 

LAND AND LEGISLATION. 

As long ago as the year 1815 land-settlement schemes were formed 
to afford relief to the many unemployed, and in 1820 British settlers 
to the number of 3,053 landed at Port Elizabeth. After the Crimean 
War homes were found for men on small holdings near King 
Williams Town. 

The secretary of lands has officially referred to the broad acres 
in possession of the Crown that remain unoccupied and unutilized, 
pointing out that, although there is a considerable area of Crown land 
unallotted, it is for the most part not suitable for settlement at 
present. It was with this knowledge of the limited capabilities of 
the unallotted Crown land that the Government of the Union passed 
acts to further land settlement under special and generous condi- 
tions. It is known that there is much land held by companies and 
private individuals that is undeveloped and is suitable for disposal 
in those small holdings for which there must be so much continual 
demand. 

The land settlement act of 1912 authorizes the acquisition by 
purchase of private lands suitable for settlement purposes. One of 
its most useful provisions, and one that meets a real need, is that 
which enables the Government to purchase any particular piece of 
land on behalf of an applicant, provided that he is willing to con- 
tribute one-fifth of the purchase price and give security for the 
payment of such amount. Every proposal to acquire land on these 
terms must be referred to the land board for report. 

If the purchase of land for an individual settler is approved, the 
Government pays the balance of the purchase price of the land, 
and when transfer has been effected in its favor the holding is 
allotted to the applicant on a conditional purchase lease for a period 
of 20 years, during which period the balance of the purchase price, 
plus any incidental expenditure incurred by the minister in connec- 
tion with the purchase, transfer, and allotment of the land, together 
with interest thereon at the rate of 4 per cent per annum, is repayable 
in half-yearly installments. 

As regards the allotment of land acquired by purchase or other- 
wise and of ordinary Crown land, the procedure is to divide any such 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 71 

lands as ma}- be suitable for settlement purposes into holdings that 
vary in extent and valuation according to the district, proximity 
to a railway line, climatic and soil conditions, etc. The valuation 
placed on land acquired from a private owner for the purpose of 
allotment must be at least equal to the cost price, including cost of 
transfer, subdivision, valuation, etc., and in the case of ordinary 
Crown lands the present market value of the land. When the land 
is available for allotment applications are invited therefor. 

Holdings that are gazetted as available for disposal are allotted 
on lease for a term of five years, the rental being calculated as fol- 
io w^s : First year — no rent is charged. Second and third years — rent 
at the rate of 2 per cent per annum on the purchase price. Third 
and fourth years — at the rate of 3J per cent per annum on the 
valuation. Eents are payable half-yearly in advance. The allottee 
has the option of acquiring the land at any time during the lease or 
at its expiration at the price of the conditional purchase extended 
over a period of 20 years. 

Advances may also be made for the purpose of providing a lessee 
with stock, implements, seed, and other things necessary to develop 
and work the holding. These advances bear interest at the rate of 
4J per cent per annum and are repayable in seven half-yearly install- 
ments, commencing 18 months after the advance is made. They are 
limited to a sum not exceeding $2,500. 

The areas of land undisposed of are mostly in the northwestern 
part of Cape Province and in Bechuanaland. They are much better 
suited for sheep and cattle than for agriculture. In the Transvaal 
and Orange Free State Provinces the Crown land available is also 
situated at a considerable distance from the railway and markets, and 
it is chiefly suitable for stock farming. In the latter Province there 
is practically no unalienated Crown land. The greater part of the 
lands of Natal suitable for agriculture have also been alienated. A 
good many blocks of Crown land along the Zululand coast were 
offered for allotment a few years ago, to be devoted to sugar-cane 
growing. The lessees were to enter into an agreement with the sugar- 
mill proprietors to supply them with all the cane grown and to keep a 
certain area of their land under that crop. The proprietors have an 
agreement with the Government as to the prices to be paid for the 
sugar cane thus supplied. These arrangements are deemed to have 
worked very satisfactorily thus far. The Province of ISTatal has much 
land that is held hj large private land companies. The Natal Land 
Colonization Co., which has its head office in London, claims to have 
farms and other properties in every district of Natal Province except 
in the Albert district. 



III. SOUTH AFRICAN CROPS AND PRODUCE. 

MAIZE. 

The cultivation of maize is a big industry in South Africa, and it 
will be of even greater importance when it forms the basis for the 
meat export trade that is certain to become well established during 
the next few years. South Africa at present is fortunate not only in 
being able to produce good maize and in having an over-sea market 
but also in the increasingly large and profitable local markets. Maize 
is the staple food of the South African native, both in his kraal and 
when working in the mines. A rapidly increasing amount of maize 
is also used for feeding stock such as cattle, ostriches, horses, mules, 
and sheep, to supplement in the winter the scant nourishment that 
these animals can obtain from the pastures. The Johannesburg 
mines alone are said to use nearly 1,000,000 bags of maize per year, 
and the Kimberley mines about 40,000 bags. The maize-producing 
areas have also to supply the districts of the Cape Province where 
the crop is not grown. Maize growing has the further advantage of 
providing the smaller farmers with a crop that they can turn into 
cash more quickly than any other of their produce. 

The extensive use and cultivation of maize in the African Continent 
have led many to suppose that the plant is indigenous, or at least that 
it has been grown there from time immemorial by the aboriginal 
races. While it does not appear that such is the case, still maize has 
undoubtedly been grown in South Africa for many years. It was 
probably introduced before the establishment of the Dutch colony in 
the Cape of Good Hope in 1650 — probably by the Portuguese, whose 
vessels called at Cape Town for water on the voyage to and from 
their East African and East Indian settlements. It is suggested 
that the local name " mielies " is a corruption of the Portuguese word 
for maize, " milho." 

The establishment of an export trade in maize has had the effect of 
steadying the local markets. Before its development, farmers were 
often able to realize $5 per bag of 200 pounds, but vv^hen there was a 
bumper crop prices fell as low as $0.75 per bag. Since the beginning 
of an export trade, to absorb the surplus production, the local market 
has never dropped below a paying price. 

The natives provide a valued local market for those farmers situ- 
ated near native locations. The South African native is ordinarily 
lacking in thrift. No sooner is his crop harvested than he will start 
to barter off for trinkets, salt, etc., without any thought of the future. 
The crop that the individual native grows is small, and in this way 
it is soon exhausted. Then he must begin to buy back from the local 
dealer or farmer at greatly enhanced prices. It is this improvidence 
that largely maintains the supply of native labor. If the native him- 

72 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFEICA. 



73 



self were a good farmer and thrifty he would not be under the neces- 
sity of working for wages, and the white farmer would lose the bene- 
fit of his services. 

Few countries in the world are better suited for maize growing on a 
large scale than South' Africa. Climatic conditions are very pro- 
pitious. The country has an ample rainfall at the right season of the 
year and phenomenally favorable winter weather, permitting the 
farmers to harvest the crop in such a manner as to produce the quality 
of grain more desirable for export. The average rainfall during 
December, January, and February (corresponding to our maize- 
growing season) in 39 stations throughout the maize belt of South 
Africa is 11.29 inches, while the average for January is 4.6 inches. 
The rainfall is, therefore, adequate for the successful growing of 
maize. 

The areas of fertile land suitable for maize growing are enormous, 
consisting of virgin soil comparable to that of the American prairies 
and, for the most part, still untouched b}^ the plow. The maize zone 
may be roughly defined as the country lying east of the 26° meridian — 
in other words, east of Port Elizabeth in the south and Zeerust in the 
north, excluding the coastal belt below 1,000 feet altitude and the 
mountain regions above 6,000 feet. Maize is the staple crop in all 
native territory. It is cultivated in practically every occupied farm 
of the Orange Free State and Transvaal Provinces. Many farmers 
grow 200 to 1,000 acres each, and at least three farmers have ,6,000 
acres under maize. The farms in these two Provinces probably aver- 
age 5,000 acres each, but the area planted with maize is usually not 
more than 5 to 10 per cent of the land and is sometimes much less. 
The dry Karroo and Kalahari regions are not suited to maize growing, 
owing to inadequate rainfall. The Cape Peninsula and adjacent 
areas have chiefly winter rains, and this fact precludes the possibility 
of maize growing there. The western districts of the Orange Free 
State and Transvaal Provinces are in the same category because there 
is a deficiency in the spring rainfall and, also, the intervals between 
the rains are usually too great. 

The acreage under maize and Kafir corn and the production of 
these cereals in 1911, according to the census of that year, were as 
follows : 



Provinces. 


Maize. 


Kafir 


corn. 


Acres. 


Bags.o 


Acres. 


Bags.o 


Cape Province 


1,727,864 
1, 805, 745 
1, 788, 294 
3,310,613 


242,327 
231, 667 
905, 502 
892, 113 


299,422 
594, 132 
191,414 
462, 758 


19,333 


Natal 


8,108 


Orange Free State 


85,485 


Transvaal 


52,485 






Total 


8,632,516 2.271.609 


1, 547, 726 


165,411 











a Bags of 200 pounds each. 



There are no statistics showing either the acreage or the production 
of this crop since 1911, but official estimates have been published 
from time to time showing that the acreage under maize has largely 
increased : this increase probabl}^ amounts to about 25 per cent since 
1911. The production of maize in 1915 is given as 10,000,000 



74 AGRICULTTJEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

bags, against 8,632,516 in 1911. While the acreage in 1916 was offi- 
cially estimated to be 9 per cent larger than in 1915, the drought was 
responsible for a 20 per cent decrease in the 1916 crop. A good deal 
of maize is also grown by the natives, it being their staple crop, and 
if a correct return of the acreage they cultivate were available it 
Avould probably be found that the amount of land devoted to maize 
is substantially larger than the above figures indicate. The present 
production of maize in South Africa is universally admitted to be an 
infinitesimal proportion of what might, and doubtless will, be pro- 
duced in the future. There are still many farmers who apparently 
believe that maize is a Kafir crop and that it does not pay the more 
ambitious white farmer to grow it. 

The consumption of maize in South Africa is estimated at about 
7,250,000 bags, but with the advent of a beef export trade that will 
cause an extension of the practice of artificial stock feeding the 
amount of maize consumed ought to increase very largely in the next 
few years. There were exported from South Africa in 1915, 1,493,000 
bags, valued at $3,073,905, as compared with maize exports valued at 
$2,133,907 in 1914. The value of the maize exported during the first 
six months of 1916 was $3,019,313, as against $757,073 in the corre- 
sponding period of 1915. Most of the maize shipped in 1916, how- 
ever, formed part of the 1915 crop, which was the largest ever har- 
vested in South Africa, though it was not grown under favorable con- 
ditions. A lack of moisture was observed throughout the growing 
season. 

During the past season farmers obtained from $2 to $2.50 per bag, 
and the grain exported was shipped chiefly to England, Australia, 
and Portuguese East Africa. Before the war large quantities of 
maize were shipped to Germany. In the over-sea markets South 
African maize always obtains as good prices as that from the 
United States and Argentina. Often a slightly higher price is ob- 
tained, due chiefly to its being preferred for manufacturing purposes 
on account of its greater dryness. The moisture contained in maize 
exported from South Africa is about 4 per cent lower than that of the 
American, and this minimizes the danger of transportation and puts 
a premium on South African grain for manufacturing purposes. 
Previous to the war the freight charged by the Conference Lines for 
carrying a ton of 2,000 pounds of South African maize to England 
was $2.50 ; during the early part of 1916 it was about $15 (the freight 
from the River Plate to England at that time being about $27). 
These figures show the encouragement given to the exportation of 
maize by the shipowners interested in the South African trade. 

CAPE PROVINCE. 

The Cape Province produces less maize in proportion to its area 
than any of the other Provinces. The absence of summer rains in the 
southwestern districts makes that part of the country poorly adapted 
to maize culture. In the Karroo and northwestern districts the total 
rainfall is too small to produce good crops of maize. In some of 
the eastern districts, however, especially the Transkei, the climate is 
favorable for the production of excellent crops of the cereal. In 
this region, however, there does not appear to have occurred the same 
rapid increase in production that is noticeable in other parts of South 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 75 

Africa. In fact, during the 12 years from 1895 to 1907 the produc- 
tion of the Victoria East district fell off from 20,000 bags to nearly 
one-third of that number, while in the King Williams Town district 
it fell off 15 per cent. In other districts the production increased con- 
siderably, and in two or three places it doubled and even trebled. 
In view of the increasing importance of these districts in connection 
with live-stock raising, the production of maize is certain to become 
very much larger in the next few years. 

NATAL. 

Maize is produced in all parts of Natal, but the midland districts, 
2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea level, are generally considered to be 
the best for this crop. The coast belt is better suited to sugar cane 
and citrus fruits than to maize, owing to the rapid and luxuriant 
growth of weeds and the consequent cost of cleaning the land. 
Wherever maize is grown on the coast belt, however, the average 
yield per acre is about IJ bags higher than upcountry, and along 
the coast of Natal to the Ubombo Range and Swaziland and in the 
adjacent portion of the Transvaal, the season between frosts is so 
long that two successive crops of maize have been matured in the 
same year. Although the uplands of Natal produce a fairly large 
quantity of maize, on the whole they seem to be better adapted to 
stock raising than agriculture. Camperdown and Richmond 'are 
considered the best part of the maize belt of Natal, the rainfall there 
being about 30 inches. One of the pioneer maize growers has 
harvested an average of about 12 bags of maize on 220 acres, while 
on 10 acres he averaged a crop of 22 bags. It is estimated that the 
area in which maize is grown in this Province is more than double 
that of all the other crops combined. Light-gray sandy loams 
prevail in the maize-growing districts of Natal, and because they 
are subject to much washing, it has been found that plowing should 
be done as near planting time as possible. 

ORANGE FREE STATE. 

The Orange Free State, together with the adjoining native ter- 
ritory of Basutoland, is perhaps the chief among the four Provinces 
of the Union in the production and exportation of maize. In this 
connection it is interesting to note that of the total area of this 
Province less than 2J per cent is planted with maize, and that in 
the best producing districts only 5J per cent of the land is planted 
with this crop. With this in mind, it is not difficult to realize the 
immense opportunity for maize growing in South Africa. The 
northeastern districts, where the rainfall is about 11 inches during 
the three maize-growing months, have the largest acreage and pro- 
duce the best crops of this cereal. A large quantity of maize is also 
grown by natives, the average yield of their crops being estimated 
at about 7 bushels per acre. 

TRANSVAAL. 

Maize is a crop eminently suited to the Transvaal. It is grown in 
every district and on practically every occupied farm. The principal 
districts, in the approximate order of production, are Bethal, 



76 AGBICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

Vereeniging, Heidelberg, Potchefstroom, Pretoria, Standerton, Er- 
melo, Middleburg, and Lichtenburg. Only a very small area of the 
Transvaal seems nnsuited to the cultivation of maize, and at present 
the acreage under this cereal is estimated to be four times as large as 
that of all the other crops combined. To appreciate the progress of 
agriculture in Transvaal Province, it may be of interest to observe 
that in 1907 it imported nearly 400,000 bags of maize. Since that 
time it has eliminated the necessity of importation and provided for 
the wants of its rapidly increasing native population, and in 1912 
the Transvaal, with 450,000 bags, contributed more largely to the 
Union's over-sea exports of maize than any other of the four Prov- 
inces. 

Most of the Transvaal maize is produced on the highlands, where 
the population is greater and there is more land under cultivation. 
A good deal of maize is also grown in the lower lands, but chiefly 
by natives. The altitude range of the crop is from 600 feet at 
Konatipoort to over 6,000 feet in the Steenkampsburg and Drakens- 
burg Ranges, but the greater part comes from the plateau between 
4,000 and 5,000 feet above sea level. The southwestern districts are 
less suited to maize, by reason of the low rainfall, the short growing 
season, and the shallow soil that is often encountered. The average 
yield of maize in the Transvaal is about four bags per acre. 

Early winter frosts are dangerous to the maize crops in the higher 
plateaus of the Transvaal at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation, because the 
season is usually too short for late-maturing breeds of maize, and 
nearly every year a part of the crop of medium-late types, such as 
Hickory King, is seriously injured. A¥hen the South African maize 
crop is once ripe, however, frost will not injure it, and it can be left 
standing in the field to dry out through the winter without fear of 
damage. In view of this danger it has become quite common in the 
Transvaal to cut the grain just before the frosts are expected and 
to stack the crop in the field. This does not interfere with the 
proper filling out and ripening of the grain if the crop is not cut 
before the grain has begun to harden. This method enables farmers 
to save their crop from injury by frost, and, besides, it results in a 
saving of some 50 per cent on the feeding value of the stover. 

PLOWING FOR MAIZE. 

New lands and lands that have been fallowed with a rotation crop 
are plowed as early as possible in the autumn (preferably in January, 
February, and March), in order to make a good seed bed and to con- 
serve the moisture for early planting. Old lands are plowed as fast 
as they are eaten doAvn by the cattle. The practice of waiting for the 
early spring rains before plowing the land is fast disappearing, be- 
cause if these are late there is the risk of not being able to plant 
early enough so that the crop will be fully matured before the early 
frosts. The method of plowing as soon as possible after the crops 
have been cleared from the land is gaining in popularity, because a 
certain amount of moisture is thus kept on the land for the following 
crop and the operation is much less difficult than if the plowing is 
done later in the winter when evaporation has considerably hardened 
the soil. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 77 

Eight to 9 inches is perhaps the average depth of plowing in 
the highlands, but deep plowing is always preferred so as to make 
a deep seed bed that will store the greatest possible amount of mois- 
ture. The interest taken lately in the mechanical means of plowing 
is chiefly due to the conviction that deeper plowing is necessary in 
order to insure the crops against the effects of drought. In Natal, 
wdiere too much rain ma}' fall during the maize-growing season, deep 
plowing is said to enable the moisture to drain away much better. 

If proper efforts were made to acquaint South African farmers 
with the advantages of subsoiling, many of them would probably 
adopt that practice. The best method would be for the subsoiler to 
be attached behind the plow bottom. The double- furrow moldboard 
plow is the type most extensively used for plowing lands for maize. 
Quite often a disk plow is used for cross plowing, and this is also 
used b}^ a great number of farmers to the exclusion of any other type 
of plow. Disk harrows and spike harrows are being used to an in- 
creasing extent to keep the soil in good condition from the time the 
land has been plowed to the time of planting. 

PLANTING. 

The planting season lasts for two months, as compared with the 
maximum of three weeks in the chief maize-growling districts of the 
United States. South African farmers, therefore, enjoy the advan- 
tage of a long and favorable planting season. Planting can be 
started as early as September, and in certain sections this can be 
continued until Christmas. Most of the maize, however, is planted 
during the month of November, but the general practice is for 
farmers to wait for the occurrence of the first spring rains, expected 
during October and November. Maize for ensilage is generally 
planted in January. 

Two-row planters, four-fifths of them fitted with fertilizer attach- 
ments, are used by perhaps more than 60 per cent of the farmers in 
planting maize. The distance between the rows varies in different 
localities and different soils, the same as in America; but 3 feet be- 
tween the rows (and 12 to 24 inches in the rows) is perhaps the dis- 
tance most in vogue. Because South Africa is subject to periodic 
droughts, deeper planting is required than in countries having a more 
uniform rainfall. It has been suggested that one of the causes of 
the low yields of maize may be found in the thiclaiess of planting. 
Twenty pounds of seed per acre are generally used when planting 
Hickory King. A good many farmers still sow their maize broadcast, 
and the usual Kafir method of planting is to scatter the seed broadcast 
over the unbroken ground and to plow the land afterwards. 

The necessity for commercial fertilizers for the maize crop varies, 
of course, between different localities. The soils of the chief maize- 
growing Provinces are usually poor in humus, and a combination of 
superphosphates and nitrate of soda has been found to increase the 
yield considerably. It seems to be quite a common practice to use 
150 pounds of fertilizer per acre, drilled in the soil with the seed. 
The average crop reaped has been doubled when this has been done, 
as compared with that produced on unmanured land. There seems to 
be a growing tendency to use kraal manure in fertilizing the land for 



78 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMEN^TS AND MACHINERY. 

maize, and consequently large hoppers should be provided with the 
planters. The construction of maize planters, including the fer- 
tilizer attachment, should be as simple as possible on account of the 
ineflGicient labor employed. An official of the Department of Agri- 
culture stated recently that most South African fields of maize do 
not average more than 50 per cent of a stand. Check-row planters 
have not been used to any great extent thus far and are not likely to 
become popular for some time to come. 

VARIETIES GROWN. 

Since thousands of bags of maize are lost every year on account 
of early frost, early maturing varieties, as well as varieties that take 
less time to mature, are the most popular. Drought-resisting varieties 
are also required for the districts of what may be called the border 
of the regular maize belt. In South Africa Hickory King is the best 
known and most extensively grown breed of white dent maize, prob- 
ably on account of its ability to thrive on relatively poor soils and 
with rough treatment. As a drought resisting and early maturing 
breed, Iowa Silver Mine is largely grown. Other white dents are 
Louisiana, Hickory Horse Tooth, and Boone County. The most 
popular yellow dents are Yellow Horse Tooth, German Yellow, 
Golden Beauty, Chester County, Eureka, Yellow Hogan, Golden 
Eagle, Eed Yellow Dent, Minnesota Early, Leaming, and Golden 
King. The principal flint breeds grown are Botman, Gango, Repa- 
triation, North Dakota, and Wills Gehu. 

CULTIVATING. 

While many farmers practice altogether modern methods of maize 
cultivation, and some of the most progressive cultivate their crop as 
often as eight times in a season, on the other hand there are many 
farmers who do not appear to understand the benefits of cultivation ; 
on account of the uncertain rainfall and great evaporation of mois- 
ture this is very essential in maize growing in a country like South 
Africa. Some farmers claim that it costs too much to keep the land 
well cultivated, and that it is difficult to secure sufficient labor to keep 
the lands clean. They, however, think nothing of putting large areas 
under maize, often losing sight of the fact that it would be less ex- 
pensive and troublesome to reduce the acreage and to keep in good 
tilth and cultivation whatever land they put under crops. 

All types of cultivating implements are used in South Africa for 
cleaning the land of weeds and keeping a loose dust mulch on the 
surface. The scarifier is still the chief implement used, but arch 
walking cultivators and disk cultivators are being used in increasing 
numbers. It is a common practice to harrow the land with the 
spike-tooth harrow as soon as the plants appear above the ground, 
and this implement is also used when the plants are 6 to 8 inches 
high. Anticlog weeders are also extensively used during the early 
period of growth ; when the plants are larger, inter-row cultivation 
is commenced. Experiments conducted at the botanical experi- 
ment station, Pretoria, show that it requires from 3^ to 11 days after 
sowing for the maize seedling to appear above the ground. In a few 
parts of South Africa the soil is light and sandy; in such districts 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFEICA. 79 

much cultivation of the maize is inadvisable, and the less the land is 
disturbed the better. Along the Vaal River the soils blow away if 
too much cultivation is practiced. 

HARVESTING OF MAIZE. 

The harvesting season begins about the middle of June in the high- 
lands, and in the midlands and Natal somewhat earlier, as climatic 
conditions make it possible to start planting earlier if desired. 

Owing to the dryness of the winter over the greater part of 
South Africa, the farmer is able to continue harvesting and shelling 
maize in the field up to the very day when he begins to prepare his 
lands for the new crop. The maize crop is generally allowed to 
dry off as it stands in the field, and the usual method of harvesting 
is for natives to pick the ears by hand, husking them at the same 
time. They open the husks with one hand while they catch hold of 
the ear with the other, and with a sharp twist the ear is dexterously 
removed. This is dropped into a bag that they carry around the 
neck. T\nien the bag is full it is emptied into a sack common to 
three or four natives, and this, when full, is carried to the headland, 
where a heap is made. The sheller is moved from one heap to 
another. The percentage of matured maize damaged by the weather 
in South Africa is exceedingly small, and the moisture contained in 
the grain exported is about 5 per cent less than that of the American- 
grown maize. 

The prevalence of weeds is a troublesome problem in South Afi'ica 
after a piece of land has grown maize for three or four years in suc- 
cession; this is perhaps responsible for the common practice of 
abandoning maize lands after the third or fourth year (the farmers 
believing, besides, that they are worn out). The advisability of this 
practice is very questionable, inasmuch as new lands usually give 
poor maize crops, whereas, by means of tillage, the land becomes 
opened up to the air and' water and chemical changes take place that 
liberate the plant food and make it available to the plant. A better 
understanding of proper cultivation and of manuring old lands, in- 
stead of abandoning them, will probably serA-e to increase the yields 
of maize. Experiments on Government farms have shoAvn that the 
best crops of maize are obtained the fourth, fifth, and sixth years 
of continuous cultivation of the soil. The annual weeds grow on the 
high lands of South Africa almost exclusively during the wet sum- 
mer months. When the rains fall at sufficiently long intervals to 
alloAv the soil to dry out thoroughly, the weeds can be kept down 
with the horse cultivator; it often happens, however, that the rain 
falls so continuously during the height of the growing season that . 
the lands remain too soft for cultivation over a long period, and the 
weeds are likely to get ahead of the maize crop unless other methods 
of treatment are adopted. The principal annual weed pests of the 
maize crop in South Africa are blue jacks, sweet grasses, goose grass, 
wild gooseberry, and Mexican marigold. Pig weed and Bermuda 
quick grass are also very prevalent. Less troublesome, but found in 
certain sections, are the Rooinek burweed and Kafir melons. The 
Ts-Ona, or witch weed, is one of the most troublesome pests with 
which the South African maize grower has to contend. 



80 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

It is not likely that, for some time to come, many corn binders will 
be sold in South Africa. , A few are in use, principally for cutting 
maize for ensilage purposes, but in a number of cases it is said that 
farmers who bought corn binders soon discontinued using them, pre- 
ferring to have the work done by hand. So far as costs are concerned, 
it appears that the hand method is the better in conditions such as 
exist in South Africa. Since oxen are generally used, three natives 
are ordinarily employed, one to lead the oxen, another to drive them, 
and a third on the machine itself. In the United States^ where good 
horses are generally used, the average acreage cut per day with a corn 
binder is stated to be 7 to 8 acres. With oxen, therefore, and with 
black labor, an average of 6 acres per day is all that a corn binder 
could be expected to cut. Against this we find that a native in South 
Africa will cut at least 2 acres of maize per day, and it is conse- 
quently apparent that farmers are not likely to consider the corn 
binder a profitable investment. It is of little interest to them that 
such a machine would bind in bundles the stalks cut, since the general 
practice in South Africa is simply to remove the ears from the stalks 
and to let the cattle onto the fields to eat the stalks down after the 
ears have been removed from them. It is only when cutting maize 
for ensilage purposes that a farmer is likely to become interested in 
corn binders. 

The average yield of maize in South Africa is estimated at 12 to 
14 bushels per acre. This is a low yield, but the methods adopted by 
the more progressive farmers who obtain higher yields are likely to 
exercise a favorable influence. The present low average yields are 
considered to cover the expenses of production; so good farmers in 
South Africa ought to find maize growing highly remunerative in 
normal seasons. The cost of production is estimated at between 
$0.85 and $1.50 per bag, although some farmers have declared that 
they can produce maize at a cost of $0.25 per bag. In the district of 
Zoutpansberg, the Department of Agriculture has produced 127 
bushels of shelled Austin Colossal, yellow dent, per acre, and at the 
Government Experimental Farm at Potchefstroom 125 bushels per 
acre of a white dent were produced. Although the average yield 
per acre in South Africa is low, the weight of the grain is compara- 
tively high. 

Hand husking is generally practiced when small acreages of maize 
are grown. Power buskers and shellers of British make, however, 
are being increasingly used. These cost from $1,000 to $1,250 to the 
farmer, and are usually driven by portable engines at 6 to 7 nominal 
horsepower. Their capacity is 120 bags per hour when shelling only, 
and one-half that quantity when husking and shelling. Because of 
the capital outlay involved in the purchase of a shelling outfit of this 
description^ comparatively few private farmers own one, but the num- 
ber of itinerant machines is increasing. The Marseilles- Adams 
husker and sheller, a smaller machine costing from $375 to $675 in 
South Africa, according to capacity, is well known in the Union. 
Practically all farmers have machines of some sort for shelling 
husked maize. These are worked either by hand or power, and vary 
in capacity to suit the needs of the individual. The prices at which 
they sell range from $7.50 to $250. 

To reduce bulk it is becoming customary to shell the maize early 
and sack the shelled grain in bags that invariably weigh 200 pounds 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 81 

net and 203 pounds gross. The method of storing the grain varies 
considerably. Since the winters in the maize belt of South Africa 
are generally dry the bags of maize can be stacked upon a raised 
platform in the open and protected with a canvas cloth, while in 
other cases they are stored in sheds. The Government has been 
requested to erect suitable warehouses at the chief inland grain- 
exporting railway stations for the storing of maize by farmers and 
merchants, a charge to be made for holding and storing the grain. 
While no coordinate action has yet been taken in this regard, the 
raihvay administration leases the land for the erection of grain 
storehouses contiguous to the railway stations, and several coopera- 
tive societies have already erected warehouses for storing the grain 
shipped by their members. There has been much discussion lately 
concerning the erection of grain elevators at the chief maize-growing 
centers and at seaports where the bulk of the maize export trade is 
handled. It is not unlikely that before long a beginning will be 
made along these lines. That a big saving will be effected is indi- 
cated by the fact that the bags for maize conunonly used in South 
Africa retail at $0.18 each. If the production of maize in South 
Africa is taken at 10,000,000 bags per year, the total expense result- 
ing from the use of these bags is $1,800,000. While the erection of 
elevators would require considerable sums of money and make it 
necessary for the railways to provide themselves with suitable equip- 
ment, it is felt that the saving effected in time and labor would pay 
in a few years for the equipment required. 

In South Africa maize meal is the natives' chief article of diet, 
and, to a less extent, maize in different forms is also consumed by 
the white inhabitants of the country. The bulk of the maize meal is 
made in large milling plants, although small hand and power maize 
mills are used by an increasing number of farmers. The native 
method is to grind the maize between two stones, the one hollow and 
stationary on the ground, the other round and held by the hand. An 
increasing proportion of the maize crop of South Africa is used as 
winter feed and for fattening cattle for slaughtering. All the various 
tj^pes of crushers and grinders used in the United States, as will be 
seen later, are coming into vogue in South Africa. The surplus of 
the maize crop not required by either natives or cattle is exported 
overseas. ^ 

KAFIR CORN. 

Kafir corn is chiefly grow^n by natives and by white farmers situ- 
ated near native settlements. Of late years the acreage under Kafir 
corn appears to have slowly decreased. This crop holds its own, how- 
ever, in localities w^here the rainfall is generally too precarious to 
grow maize, as it is said to be far more capable of resisting drought 
than maize. Kafir corn is handled on more or less the same lines 
as maize. The amount of seed sown per acre varies from 8 to 10 
pounds when it is sown with planters by the white farmers, and from 
12 to 15 pounds Avhen sown broadcast by the natives. 

SILOS AND ENSILAGE. 

Because of the drv winters experienced in South Africa, it is not 
considered necessary to build silos of the substantial type that one 
finds in the maize-growing districts of the United States. The great 

1276°— 17— No. 146 6 



82 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEBY. 

majority of silos used in South Africa are very primitive and crude. 
Pit silos are most common; they are constructed by digging a big 
hole in the ground, wherein the ensilage is stored and covered with 
straw or hay, as well as some sheets of corrugated iron to prevent 
rain from soaking into it. In some cases trenches are made 3 or 
4 feet square in the section along the headlands, wherein the ensilage 
is placed. Ditches are constructed alongside, in order to lead any 
rain away from the trench containing the ensilage. The more pro- 
gressive farmers, however, are building modern silos to an increas- 
ing extent, and some very fine structures, erected in accordance with 
the most scientific principles, are already to be seen in the country. 
The great majority of farmers who have silos use ensilage cutters, 
and it is pleasing to note that the various types of ensilage cutters 
made by an Ohio company are most popular in South Africa. 

WHEAT. 

Wheat growing is an exceedingly remunerative industry in South 
Africa, and the farmers who are so situated that they can grow wheat 
are considered extremely fortunate. Very good prices are obtained 
for locally grown wheat, because of the heavy importations that are 
still necessary to supply the requirements of the country. Wherever 
wheat can be grown, this is naturally done in preference to raising 
maize or any of the other staple crops of South Africa. 

The Union consumption of wheat is estimated at 3,700,000 bags, of 
200 pounds each, per annum. In 1911 South Africa produced 
1,810,315 bags of wheat, and in 1914 2,158,804 bags, this being much 
less than the quantity consumed. Owing to these circumstances, the 
South African grower receives for his wheat as much as the grower 
of the imported wheat, in addition to the cost of importing, with its 
numerous items of expense, such as freight, insurance, commissions, 
etc. He is further benefited by inducements designed to encourage 
the production of wheat in South Africa, such as the duty of $0.28 per 
100 pounds imposed on imported wheat and the much lower freight 
rates charged by the Union's railways on South African wheat. 
Since the beginning of the war, with the good prices paid for wheat 
and the high ocean freights, the South African wheat farmer has 
reaped, so to speak, a golden harvest, receiving an average of $6 to $7 
per bag of 200 pounds. The wheat harvest of 1915-16 was a very 
good one, and this fact is reflected in the decreased quantity of wheat 
and flour imported (about 20 per cent less than in the previous year). 
In normal times the South African farmer receives. $4 to $4.50 per 
bag of 200 pounds. In other words, he receives from 50 to 75 per 
cent more than the growers in the chief w^heat-producing countries 
of the world. 

It is said that the area in which wheat can be grown in South 
Africa is very small, owing to the distribution of the rainfall, and for 
this reason more than two-thirds of the wheat produced in South 
Africa is grown in the Cape Province, chiefly in its southwestern dis- 
tricts. In the other parts of South Africa the rains fall in the sum- 
mer, which may cause a deficiency of moisture during the early 
spring, when wheat attains most of its growth. Through irrigation, 
however, and a better knowledge of the science of soil cultivation 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFEICA. 83 

making for the conservation of moisture, the areas imder wheat are 
gradually expanding, and this cereal is now groAvn in commercial 
quantities throughout the Union, w4th the exception of Natal. 
Greater experience in irrigation and intensive cultivation should en- 
able South Africa in a few years to stop the flow of its money over- 
seas to pa}^ for foreign wheat supplies. The Government is working 
energetically toward this end, and it called a Wheat Congress to be 
held at Bloemfontein in September, 1916, with a view to discussing 
and encouraging the cultivation of the cereal. In 1915 $7,029,659 
worth of wheat and flour were imported, of which the United States' 
share amounted to $3,049,305. 

' CAPE PROVINCE. 

The chief wheat-producing districts of South Africa lie in the 
extreme southwestern corner of Cape Province. These are Malmes- 
bury, producing 271,157 bags; Caledon, 101,249 bags; Piquetberg, 
94,730 bags; Paarl,' 38,515 bags; and Bredasdorp, 36,866 bags. 
Malmesbury is the most noted and important wheat-growing district 
of South Africa, and it produces from one-fifth to one-fourth of all 
the wheat grown in Cape Province. One of the leading business men 
of that city stated that good crops have been harvested during the 
past 60 years, with only one or two exceptions (in which seasons, 
however, the crop was far from being a failure). In small quanti- 
ties wheat is also grown in the districts adjoining those mentioned. 

The second largest group in point of production is situated in the 
extreme east, adjoining the Transkei territories, comprising chiefly 
the districts of Queenstown, Tarkastad, Cradock, Albert, Aliwal 
North, Herschel, Barkly East, Cathcart, Glen Grey, and Wodehouse ; 
these districts produced a total of 157,745 bags in 1911. It is neces- 
sary to remark in connection with the production of wheat in these 
districts that the industry is not so well established there as in the 
southwestern districts. Wheat is sown every year, it is true, in 
large areas, but according to one of the leading farm-machinery mer- 
chants in Queenstown, good crops have been obtained only five or 
six times during the past 20 years, considering the area planted. In 
view of these circumstances, wheat growing is. very much a matter of 
chance, and therefore, until recently, very careless cultivation meth- 
ods prevailed. Lately, owing to the profitable prices obtained, bet- 
ter methods have been adopted and are certain to be permanent. The 
land heretofore has been plowed carelessly, and the seed has been 
sown in a like manner. With favorable rainfall and climatic condi- 
tions, generous crops have been harvested ; otherwise the cattle have 
been turned into the fields and the land has been prepared for maize. 

In the Transkeian territories conditions similar to those just de- 
scribed prevail in a greater or less degree, although rainfall and other 
climatic conditions appear somewhat more favorable to wheat grow- 
ing. In 1911 the Transkei produced nearly 10 per cent of the total 
wheat output of Cape Province. There are also isolated districts 
in Cape Province where wheat is grown. Among these the most 
important are Calvinia, Humansdorp, Namaqualand, Swellendam, 
Oudtshoorn, and Uniondale. 



84 AGEICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEKY. 

In the northwest of Cape Province, along Carnarvon and the Zak 
River, much development work has been done in recent years in order 
to grow wheat hj utilizing the flood waters of the Zak, Fish, and 
Doom Eivers, which deposit a very rich silt on the lands in addition 
to thoroughly irrigating them. These rivers have shallow beds and 
easily overflow, this occurring from one to three times in the course 
of a 3^ear, although droughts often upset all calculations. In good 
seasons very large crops are obtained in these districts. 

NATAL. 

The acreage under wheat in Natal is A-ery small, indeed, and there 
are no indications at present that this industry will attain much 
importance in the near future. 

ORANGE FREE STATE. 

A number of districts in the northeastern part of the Orange Free 
State, especially along the borders of Natal and Basutoland, are 
increasingly taken up for wheat growing as a regular undertaldng, 
and they are second in importance only to the southwestern districts 
of the Cape. The districts of Bethlehem, Ficksburg, Ladybrand, 
Senekal, and Harrismith are the most noted for wheat growing in 
this Province. On a small scale wheat is grown in all the other 
districts east of Bloemfontein. 

TRANSVAAL. 

That there are a good many districts in this Province where wheat 
can be successfully grown has been demonstrated in recent years. 
Whereas in 1911 only 73,072 bags were grown, the crop for 1915-16 
was estimated at 300,000 bags. The eastern districts of the Trans- 
vaal are very rich agriculturally, and wheat is extensively grown 
there. In the districts of Potchefstroom and Lichtenburg the grow- 
ing of wheat has made very rapid strides. As the principles of 
dr}" farming are better understood, this should become a very im- 
portant crop in the Transvaal. The chief difficulty is that 80 per 
cent of the. rainfall occurs in the summer, which is bound to interfere 
with the harvesting of the crop. By selecting early maturing vari- 
eties and fostering the growth as much as possible toward the end of 
the winter and in the early spring this difficulty may be overcome 
to some extent. The uplands are considered the best in the Trans- 
vaal for wheat growing, and there a large proportion of the crop is 
now grown under irrigation. 

PLOWING. 

Plowing for wheat in the Cape Province i^ done in January and 
February. Owing, perhaps, to the satisfactor}^ rainfall in the chief 
wheat-growing districts of that Province, plowing is done only 5 or 
6 inches deep. In other parts of South Africa where wheat growing 
is adequately undertaken the plowing is as deep as possible, so that 
when the rains come the land will be ready to absorb and store the 
maximum of moisture. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFEICA. 85 

PLANTING. 

All seed wheat, barley, oats, and rye is dressed with a smut pre- 
ventive before the sowing. Bluestone is ordinaril}^ used for this 
purpose. The grain is sprinkled with a solution of copper sulphate 
(bluestone), 1 pound to 10 gallons of water. Some farmers dip the 
bag of grain in a tank containing the solution. Others heap the 
grain on the floor and spra}^ or sprinkle it while it is being shoveled 
over. 

Planting in Cape Province is done in May and June, and, so far, 
grain drills have not been used to any marked extent. To prevent 
rust, the seed is mixed with bluestone, which tends to moisten it. 
Some of the farmers who have tried grain drills state that on this 
account the seed does not flow easily through the spouts, causing it to 
choke the machine. They also claim to have experienced difficulty 
with grain drills on account of the hilly nature of most wheat lands, 
which causes the seed to crowd toward the side of the hopper travel- 
ing lower, with the result that no seed is available for the drills on 
the higher side of the seed box. The seed is sown rather thinly, and 
it is often allowed to grow a second time without disturbing the 
ground ; that is, after the regular wheat crop has been harvested, the 
land remains idle and a second crop is harvested the following sea- 
son from the seed fallen into the soil during the harvest. Eust-re- 
sisting and earlj^-maturing varieties are those chiefly cultivated. The 
Rietti wheat seems to be generally preferred, and there is also a 
preference for Du Toit and Een Been wheat: Medeah and Red 
Egyptian wheat are also grown to some extent. In the Transvaal, 
where it may be said that the farmers are of a more progressive 
type (perhaps because of the greater effort it takes on their part 
to make a success of wheat growing) , grain drills are used in plant- 
ing wheat more often than in the Cape Province. 

HARVESTING. 

Harvesting takes place during November, December, and Jan- 
uary, and in the southwestern districts American binders are used 
almost to the exclusion of all other types and makes of machines. 
There is a marked contrast between the conservative, backward 
methods in planting and plowing for wheat and the fact that the 
farmers there are content with nothing but the best types of har- 
vesting machinery. Malmesbury is by far the most important cen- 
ter in South Africa for the sale of grain binders, the local firms im- 
porting their requirements direct from the United States, oven 
though Cape Town is not far distant. In the other parts of South 
Africa/vhere wheat is grown, binders are not used to the same ex- 
tent as in the southwestern part of Cape Province. Reapers, mow- 
ers with repair attachments, and even plain mowers are chiefly 
used to harvest the small cereals; hand harvesting, it may be noted, is 
still done extensively. 

The average production of wheat in Cape Province may be taken 
as tenfold, or from 6 to 8 bushels per acre. In the Karroo districts, 
as well as in other sections where irrigation is resorted to, the yields 
are greater, one hundredfold being not uncommon. 



86 



AGEIGULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



Barley, oats, and rye are handled on more or less the same lines 
as wheat. Oats are largely cut for hay and used as forage for cattle 
and horses, and in this connection there is quite a large trade in 
presses for baling oat hay. The ordinary hay press is not suitable 
for this purpose, since the common practice is to lay the oat hay flat 
so that the heads project in one of the sides of the bale. In other 
words, the oat bundles are carefully laid flat by hand and the bale is 
pressed with care so as to avoid thrashing the grain out. 

The following tables give the acreage and the production of wheat 
and other cereals in the Union of South Africa according to the 
census of 1911: 

ACREAGE. 



Provinces. 



Cape Province 

Natal 

Orange Free State 
Transvaal 

Total 



Wheat. 



Acres. 

485,018 

2,327 

236,682 

73, 072 



Oats. 



Acres. 
500,038 
16, 629 
184, 502 
102, 192 



Barley. 



Acres. 

90,304 

2,583 

8,910 

5,949 



797,099 803,361 107,746 107,480 



Rye. 



Acres. 

90, 503 

866 

15,445 

666 



Total. 



Acres. 

1,165,863 

22,406 

445, 539 

180, 879 



1,814,687 



PRODUCTION. 



Provinces. 



Cape Province . . . , 
Natal 

Orange Free State 
Transvaal 

Total 



Wheat. 



Bags of 

200 

'pounds. 

1,305,006 

7,231 

265,487 

232, 591 



1,810,315 



Oats. 



Bags of 

150 

pounds. 

1,228,927 

43, 639 

155, 067 

633,289 



2,060,922 



Oat hay. 



Tons of 

2,000 

pounds. 

147, 325 

4,892 

54,081 

46, 803 



253,101 



Barley. 



Bags of 
iSO 

pounds. 

373, 509 

2,807 

12,381 

18,939 



407,636 



Barley, 
cut green. 



Tom. 

25, 248 
2,086 

11, 180 
5,625 



44, 139 



Rye. 



Bags of 

200 

pounds. 

169,287 

828 

1,270 

31,318 



202,703 



About $260,000 worth of South African grain and meal, aside 
from maize and Kafir corn and meals therefrom, were exported dur- 
ing 1916, more than one-half of which was oats. 

SUGAR. 



The culture of sugar is extensively carried on in the warmer parts 
of Natal and Zululand, along the coast, and it would be difficult at 
the present time to find any other industry in South Africa enjoy- 
ing the same degree of prosperity. It is now considered the most 
important in Natal, and it ranks among the first agricultural in- 
dustries of the Union. Considering the expense involved in the 
planting of sugar cane, the progress made in the last few years is 
very remarkable, the production having nearly doubled since 1911. 
The census of 1911 gives the acreage under sugar cane as 53,000 
acres in Natal and 11,000 acres in Zululand. The actual land under 
cultivation at present is 140,763 acres. The production has increased 
from 79,633 tons of sugar in 1911 to ll2,000 tons in 1915, with an esti- 
mated crop of 120,000 to 130,000 tons in 1916. The importation of 
sugar by the Union in 1915 was 16,000 tons, or 50,000 tons less than in 
1906. In the 12 months from May 1, 1915, to April 30, 1916, fewer 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 87 

than 4,000 tons were imported. There is a protective duty of $20.50 
per ton of 2,000 pounds on all sugar entering the Union from abroad, 
with the exception of that grown in Portuguese East Africa, which 
is on exactly the same footing as Natal sugar so far as Transvaal 
Province is concerned. 

In order to ascertain whether sufficient sugar could be produced 
within the British Empire to meet the present and prospective re- 
quirements of the United Kingdom, the West India Committee, in 
October, 1914, addressed a circular letter of inquiry to the govern- 
ments of the principal tropical possessions of Great Britain asking 
what openings there were for the expansion of the sugar industry. 
The Governor General of the South African Union furnished in 
reply the following statement: 

The actual acreage at present under cultivation for cane in Natal and Zulu- 
land is 140,763 acres; the acreage suitable and at present held for this pur- 
pose is 46,662 acres ; and the acreage which, being suitable, might be rendered 
available is 184,644 acres, making a total of 372,069 acres either under cultiva- 
tion or suitable for the purpose. 

The approximate amount of sugar which the Province of Natal (including 
Zululand) would be capable of producing, having regard to the difficulties of 
labor supply, and provided that reliable markets could be obtained oversea, is 
332,048 tons. 

The present output of sugar in Natal is about 100,000 tons, and to produce 
this amount there are employed on the sugar estates 13,000 Indian men and 
8,000 to 9,000 Indian women and children, as well as a number of natives 
amounting, it is thought, to about 25 per cent of the total labor employed, 
though reliable figures can not be obtained owing to the fluctuation of the 
native labor supply. 

It is considered that the coast lands of Natal are capable of producing 
250,000 tons of sugar per annum, but in order to do this it would be necessary 
to supplement the labor at present available by at least 30,000 Indians, or 
40,000 natives. 

The problem of the supply of labor is a most serious one, and no increase in 
the present output can take place unless there is an increase in such supply. 

Sugar farms in Natal and Zululand vary in size from 250 to 500 
acres, and there are several sugar estates with 3,000 or 4,000 acres 
under cane. Land suitable for sugar cane can not be procured for 
less than $50 per acre, and it is already difficult to get land within 
a short radius of the sugar mills. When the estates are a long dis- 
tance from the mills tramway lines are used for the transportation 
of the cane to either the mills or the nearest railway station. 

Although the country teems with blacks, these do not constitute 
the steady and reliable labor supply for which the sugar industry 
calls. The Kafir, as has been said elsewhere, is not a worker in the 
real sense of the word. He is able-bodied, hardy, and enduring, but 
nothing short of compulsion, physical or economic, will make him 
devote himself to steady work. This difficulty was overcome when 
the Natal Government, in 1860, legalized the importation of coolies 
from India, but, owing to restrictive legislation on the part of the 
Union, a few years ago, against Indian traders establishing them- 
selves in the country, the Indian Government took steps to prevent 
the further recruiting of labor within the Indian Empire. The last 
coolies arrived in South Africa in July, 1911. For work in the sugar 
fields $7.50 per month is paid to natives and from $7.50 to $15 to 
coolies. A number of Mauritius planters and trained artisans set- 
tled in Natal many years ago, introducing competent labor to run 
the sugar mills, as well as to assist in the growing of sugar generally. 



88 AGRICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEKY. 

Yuba, cane is the type most extensively cultivated in Natal. From 
a milling point of view, this cane is undesirable. It is thin, tough, 
wiry, and fibrous, and the juice requires special treatment. Mill 
managers say that from 10 to 30 per cent more mill power is required 
for this cane than for any other variety. It has proved, however, 
the best variety for the Natal planters because it endures the uncer- 
tainty of the climate better than any other that has been tried. It 
is hardy, bears frost and drought, stools prolifically, recovers readily 
from locust attacks, and is but little damaged by white ants and the 
borer. It yields satisfactory rotoons five or six times as compared 
with three rotoons in the case of other varieties. The first rotoon 
crop is stated by some planters to yield better than the plant cane 
crop itself. This variety of cane produces up to 20 canes per stool. 

PLOWING. 

Hillside reversible plows are used by small farmers in preparing 
the land for sugar, owing to the undulating and hilly formation 
of the land where sugar is grown. In the case of the large estates, 
where the lands occupy entire hills, the ordinary type of plow is 
used. One of the most prominent men in the industry stated that 
plowing is seldom done deeper than 10 inches. Where the soil is 
loose or sandy, as is often the case, the land is not plowed for cane 
planting. The making of holes is considered sufficient. The river 
flats, in the early days, were considered the best land for this crop, 
but it was discovered that the cane was liable to injury from frost, 
so the cane fields have been brought up the hillsides and even onto the 
steeper slopes, where only hand labor can be utilized. 

Sandy soils, gray and red, light loams and chocolate loams, sandy 
clays of all degrees of texture, gray alluvials, and black alluvials are 
the types of soil where .sugar cane is grown. The prevailing soil in 
Natal is a red or chocolate, ferruginous, sandy loam, of light texture, 
easily worked once it has been broken up. A practice recommended 
to cane growers, and often followed, is to applj^ fertilizers in a fur- 
row from 6 to 9 inches deep at each side of the cane row, about 12 
inches from the stools. There seems to be no combined plow and fer- 
tilizer sold in Natal that will perform this operation, and this ap- 
pears to be a matter deserving the attention of American manu- 
facturers. 

Irrigation is seldom resorted to on account of the hilly nature of 
the country, but there are a few sections where the natural rainfall 
can be supplemented by artificial means, making it feasible to harvest 
an annual crop instead of a biennial one; this also opens up wdde 
possibilities as regards the choice of varieties of cane. Natal grows 
sugar cane with a rainfall of about 40 inches per annum, whereas 100 
inches of rainfall is considered necessary in tropical countries in 
order to produce it successfully. 

PLANTING. 

The general time for planting sugar cane is August and September, 
though planting may be done as late as December and January. 
The rows are placed from 4 to 6 feet apart, according to the rich- 
ness of the soil^ and from two to four cuttings 6 to 18 inches apart 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 89 

are planted in the drills. The land is either drilled with a plow 9 
or 10 inches deep or it is holed out in straight lines. In some cases 
the plow is first used at a depth of 6 inches, and it then returns along 
the same furrow cutting 4 inches more, making a furrow 10 inches 
deep in all. In this waj^ the seed canes have an excellent bed of 
loose earth around them, since in the second plowing a good deal of 
loose soil falls in the furrow. After the cuttings are laid in the 
holes or trenches, they are loosely covered with about an inch of 
soil. As the young shoots grow^ up, the covering of soil is increased 
until the holes or drills are filled. 

CULTIVATING. 

A great deal of cultivation is done by hand, but small plows and 
scarifiers are also largeh'^ used. When the cane comes up it is gener- 
ally hand weeded and hand hoed until it is 2 feet high. If the lay of 
the land permits, it is from that time cultivated with horse hoes and 
scarifiers, as long as the animals can get between the rows. 

HARVESTING. 

It takes from 20 to 24 months for the cane to be ready for harvest- 
ing. The canes are cut with hatchets, or cane knives, as close to the 
base as possible. Cutting begins in April and continues until Decem- 
ber. The scarcity of labor often causes the harvesting period to ex- 
tend over nine months. Thirty tons of cane per acre are considered 
in Natal a good crop, although on new lands as many as 60 tons and 
more are obtained. The average for Natal plantations, however, 
probably does not exceed 30 tons. Sugar cane delivered at the mills 
is worth from $3 to $3.50 per ton, which, after deducting expenses, 
leaves from $2 to $2.50 for the grower. When manured, good crops 
of sugar cane are ordinarily obtained for from 10 to 15 years without 
replanting. There are about 40 sugar mills at work in Natal, besides 
a large refinery, and these employ a total of about 10,000 persons. 

The Natal sugar industry is undoubtedly enjoying a solid pros- 
perity, altogether apart from any influence emanating from the war. 
Cane cultivation has substantially increased the price of the coast 
lands of Natal, but not beyond their intrinsic value. If the recom- 
mendation of the West India Committee to establish a preferential 
customs tari:flP in favor of sugar grown in British colonies is adopted, 
there should be considerable scope for Natal to increase the area of 
its land under sugar, as such action would make it possil)le to look 
forward to an export trade after the local market has been taken care 
of. There is, perhaps, no country in the world Avhere land can be 
put under sugar cane so cheaply as in Natal and Zululand. What it 
costs in other countries to clear the land for cane is often the price of 
land in Natal planted with sugar and generally improved. Sugar 
growing is one of the few industries in South Africa at present that 
offers an opportunity for close settlement, especially when dairying 
is taken up in connection with it. 

BEET SUGAR. 

The possibilities of establishing a sugar-beet industry are being 
tested. Seeds have been distributed by a prominent Oudtshoorn 
landowner to farmers in the George and adjoining districts, and the 



90 AGRICULTTJKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

results obtained show that these produce beets with a percentage of 
sugar amounting to more than 15 per cent, which is the average sugar 
content insisted upon by European manufacturers. All experiments 
made thus far have been satisfactory, but there is little likelihood 
that a factory to handle the crop will be erected before the termina- 
tion of the war. It is felt that large areas of irrigated Karroo land 
could be profitably devoted to the growing of sugar beets. 

TOBACCO. 

Tobacco growing is largely engaged in throughout South Africa, 
and large areas of land are now devoted to this crop. In the older 
tobacco-producing districts the area given over to it is rapidly in- 
creasing. In 1911, 19,200 acres were under this crop, which pro- 
duced 14,961,199 pounds of tobacco. All the districts of South 
Africa, with few exceptions, contribute to this output. The value of 
South African tobacco exported in 1915 was more than $320,000, the 
bulk being pipe tobacco. There is a duty of $0.95 per pound on leaf 
tobacco imported. 

The Union Government maintains a special tobacco division to 
promote the industry, and experimental stations have been estab- 
lished at Rustenburg, Barberton, Piet Eetief, and Tzaneen. At all 
the agricultural colleges and experimental farms of the Union a 
great deal of attention is given to this crop. In addition to seed 
testing and demonstrations at the stations, members of the tobacco 
division are constantly traveling throughout the Union, advising 
farmers as to the best methods of growing and curing tobacco. The 
methods in vogue in the tobacco districts of the United States are 
closely followed in South Africa, American experts having been 
largely employed by the Union Government to foster this industry. 

Black turfs and red loams are the types of soil generally selected. 
The average yield is given as 800 pounds per acre, and the prices 
obtained vary from $0.18 to $0.30 per pound. In the past all the 
tobacco grown in the Union, other than Turkish tobacco, has been 
air cured, but several of the more progressive growers are now adopt- 
ing the flue-curing method for the production of the light-color leaf. 

CAPE PROVINCE. 

The acreage in Cape Province is 4,376 and the production 2,767,179 
pounds. The chief producing districts are Oudtshoorn and Stocken- 
stroom, which produce the Virginia type, and Paarl and Stellen- 
bosch, which cultivate the Turkish variety. In the two latter dis- 
tricts the industry is making considerable progress, and the Western 
Province Tobacco Growers Co. (Ltd.), with a capital of $100,000, 
was formed about two years ago to prepare and market the crop, and 
it has so far handled 200,000 pounds of tobacco. Tobacco is grown 
to a greater or less extent everywhere in the Province, and it is esti- 
mated that the acreage under this crop has increased about 50 per 
cent since 1911. The Turkish tobacco grown around Paarl takes 
about two years to mature properly. The output has, so far, proved 
insufficient to meet local demands for it for cigarette making, and the 
manufacturers at Cape Town have recently indicated that they could 
use twice the amount that is now being offered. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 91 

NATAL. 

The acreage in Natal is 1,050 and the production 2,685,037 pounds. 
Tobacco is largely cultivated in the Inanda, Lower Tugela, and Alex- 
andra districts, the types grown being dark leaf for cigar wrappers 
and fillers. 

ORANGE FREE STATE. 

The acreage in the Orange Free State is 2,370 and the production 
807,209 pounds. The Vredefort district is the chief producing 
center, the Turkish leaf being chiefly grown. 

- TRANSVAAL. 

The Transvaal acreage is 11,405 and the production 7,701,774 
pounds. The Rustenburg and Krugersdorp districts, where the 
famous Magaliesberg pipe tobacco is grown, contributed more than 
one-third of the total production of tobacco in South Africa, and the 
output of the Transvaal is more than half of the total output of the 
Union. This pipe tobacco is of very good burning quality, of mild 
flavor, and cool; it is much relished by those accustomed to it, who 
prefer it to any other. 

The Transvaal tobacco industry has attained a degree of organi- 
zation unequaled by any other agricultural industr;^ in South Africa. 
The cooperative tobacco warehouse at Rustenburg is rapidly extend- 
ing its operations, and in 1913 it handled nearly 4,000,000 pounds of 
tobacco. The average price received for light yellow tobacco was 
from $0.25 to $0.35 per pound and for pipe tobacco from $0.08 to 
$0.12 per pound. 

COTTON. 

Cotton is a crop suited to large areas of South Africa where irri- 
gation is not available and there is only a moderate rainfall. The 
districts of Rustenburg, Marico, and Waterburg and the midlands 
and lowlands of the eastern sections of South Africa are considered 
to be suitable for the profitable cultivation of this crop. Natal and 
Zululand are said to offer great possibilities in connection with the 
industr3\ and the Agricultural Cooperative Union (Ltd.), of Pieter- 
maritzburg, has made arrangements whereby cotton ginned and 
placed on board ship for export will be paid for at the rate of 75 per 
cent of the Government expert's valuation, the balance to be paid 
when the cotton is sold. This will remove one of the chief draw- 
backs to the development of the industry in Natal, for the farmers 
in the past did not regard cotton growing with favor on account of 
the uncertainty as to the time they w^ould be paid for the crop. 

Trial fields of cotton have been successfully grown in the warmer 
parts of the Transvaal, Natal, eastern Cape Province, Transkeian 
territories, Zululand, and Swaziland, and during the past three years 
many farmers have taken an interest in the cultivation of this crop. 
The varieties of cotton that have given the best results in South 
Africa belong to the American upland type. The average yield of 
the big-boll varieties is about 325 pounds of lint per acre, while the 
long-staple varieties produce about 225 pounds per acre. The cost of 



92 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

production, including ginning and preparation for market, is about 
$15 per acre. South African lint is said to realize from 1 to 2 cents 
per pound more on the English market than American-grown lint of 
the same varieties of cotton. 

The importance of cotton growing in South Africa lies more in the 
future development it promises than the extent to which the industry 
is prosecuted at the present time. The production of cotton has not 
thus far exceeded an annual output of 500,000 pounds of seed cotton. 
The chief of the cotton division is an American and so are the prin- 
cipal officers under his charge. A number of South African young 
men have studied in the United States agricultural colleges with a 
view to familiarizing themselves with the methods followed there in 
connection with cotton culture, so such practices as are in vogue in 
the United States have been adopted in developing this industry in 
South Africa. 

Plowing for cotton in' South Africa is done from 8 to 12 inches 
deep, to provide for a seed bed with a liberal moisture-holding 
capacity, and, in order that the planting may be early, plowing is 
done during the winter, when the soil unfortunately is dry and 
hard. Planting is done as soon after the spring rains as possible 
(generally during October), the distance between the rows being 40 
inches, with one to three seeds drilled everj^ 18 or 24 inches. From 
10 to 15 pounds of seed per acre are considerecl necessary when 
the planting is done by hand and 18 to 25 pounds when it is 
done Avith a planter. Much cotton planting is done by hand, but 
cotton planters will no doubt be used extensively when the industry 
attains greater dimensions. An officer of the cotton division stated 
that in Natal in particular " the indications are that planting cotton 
with listers is A-ery likely to come into great favor," 

Cultivating is done in the same way as in the Southern United 
States, four cultivations during the growing period being considered 
necessary, and the single and double row cultivators are becoming 
much in demand for this purpose. Experiments made to determine 
the value of lime in connection with the growing of cotton have 
invariably proved that much greater yields are obtained when this 
is supplied, and no doubt lime distributors will be largely used in the 
future in connection with cotton growing. As regards harvesting, 
South Africa farmers are especially favored with a clear autumn 
and winter to harvest their crops, and the large amount of labor that 
may be made available for this industry, if proper inducements are 
given, should serve to solve the problem of picking cotton, which 
is so acute elsewhere. The system of paying the natives a certain 
fixed amount for every 100 pounds of cotton picked should meet 
with favor in South Africa, if established. So far, the average 
amount of cotton picked by a South African native in a day is 50 
pounds, instead of the 125-pound average prevailing in the United 
States. 

In one of the experiments made by the cotton division, 1,718 pounds 
of seed cotton per acre, with 32.3 per cent of lint, were obtained. The 
cost of production is given at $12.50 and the net profit at $54. The 
chief of the cotton division is authority for the statement that a 
Rustenburg farmer during the season 1914-15 planted 2^ acres with 
cotton and harvested 9,731 pounds of seed cotton. Avhich he delivered 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 93 

to the Cotton Cooperative Society of Rustenburg, receiving a check 
for $395. Another farmer spent $0.20 for cotton seed, which he 
planted on IJ acres, and for his crop the society paid him $199.88. 
In a pamphlet published by the Department of Agriculture the fol- 
lowing remarks are made regarding the yields of cotton obtained 
in South Africa : 

Tests made here of the yield of seed cotton produced from a given number 
of selected bolls compare favorably with those of any cotton country. In 1910, 
at our Rustenburg station, we obtained 1 pound of seed cotton from 43 bolls, 
and last season we had 8 varieties to come under this record, the lowest being 
34 bolls to produce 1 pound of seed cotton. In a similar test, made and re- 
ported at the North Carolina (United States of America) Experiment Station 
in 1907, out of 45 varieties, the least number required to give a pound of 
seed cotton was 58 and the greatest number required was 92. This is very 
encouraging to us, as well as an indication of the possibilities of the cotton 
industry in South Africa. 

To encourage the growing of cotton in Natal the Government re- 
cently erected a small ginning plant in Durban, consisting of two 
roller ginning machines and a baling press. Ginning plants are also 
operated by the Government at Tzaneen and Rustenburg. There 
are also privately owned ginneries at Durban and at Manelane, 
Transvaal. The Chamber of Commerce at East London also op- 
erates a ginnery. The weight adopted in South Africa for bales 
of cotton is 220 pounds, but as the industry attains greater import- 
ance bales of 500 pounds, to conform to the American standard, will 
probably be made. The Department of Agriculture is now con- 
sidering the erection of a cotton-seed crushing plant and the manu- 
facture of cotton-seed cake, which should give a great stimulus to the 
cotton-growing industry. Several Government experiment stations 
have grown cotton successfully for the past six years and have 
proved that cotton will, if given good cultivation, produce paying 
crops. The cotton grown at these stations in 1913 amounted to 
140,000 pounds of lint, which was sold on the English market at 
prices ranging from $0.15 to $0.16 per pound when American cotton 
was selling at approximately $0.12 per pound. The 1915 crop was 
sold to the South African Woolen Mills Co., Woodstock, Cape Prov- 
ince, which operates 1,500 spindles and uses from 300 to 400 pounds 
of lint per day, at the price of $0.14 per pound. 

The Cooperative Society at Rustenburg has a ginning plant, and 
during 1915 it shipped 417 bales of cotton. The gins there are saw 
gins and capable of producing between 2,000 and 3,000 pounds of 
ginned cotton per day. 

As native labor comes to be better appreciated and is handled with 
tact and encouraged to regard and respect work as a duty, it should 
be possible to turn to account on an extensive scale the latent energies 
of th^ colored race in connection with the growing of cotton. 

Cotton is advocated as a good rotation crop with maize and legu- 
minous crops and for those sections of the country where maize can 
not be grown for the Avant of a few more inches of rainfall. 

VITICULTURE. 

Owing to climatic conditions, the commercial cultivation of the 
vine is practically confined to the western Cape Province, the only 
part of South Africa that receives the rains during the winter months 



94 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

of the year. The other parts of South Africa obtain the rains in 
summer, when the crops come to maturity and when a continuation 
of wet w^eather may spoil the grape crop completely. 

In 1911 there were 59,622,622 bearing vine stocks and 9,121,852 
nonbearing vine stocks in the Union, the number outside Cape Prov- 
ince being less than 1,000,000 vine stocks. During 1911, 621,543 
gallons of brandy (1,662,868 gallons in 1915), 5,468,032 gallons of 
wine, 32,167 gallons of vinegar, and 2,524,826 pounds of raisins were 
made. The total crop that year was 5,753,682 bushel baskets of 
grapes, of which 1,348,957 bushel baskets were not made into either 
brandy, wine, or raisins. In 1912, $170,000 worth of grapes were 
exported, but in 1915 only $60,000 worth — probably owing to the 
high cost of freight and the scarcity of ships. About $105,000 worth 
of South African wine and $66,000 worth of brandy were exported 
in 1915. In 1904 there were 35,000 acres of land planted as vine- 
yards and in 1911 36,235. It is estimated that about 1,000,000 vine 
stocks have been planted annually during the last few years, and, 
judging from the increase in the production of brandy and the larger 
local demand for Cape wine in recent years, the present acreage 
planted with vineyards must be substantially larger. 

The most important viticulture centers are Paarl, Stellenbosch, 
and Worcester, but the vine is also extensively cultivated in the other 
districts in the southwest of Cape Province. Karroo soils produce 
wine in an abundance almost unknown in any other part of the 
world. Generally accepted figures show that on some farms more 
than 600 gallons of wine are produced from 1,000 vines, this pro- 
duction being far in excess even of that of the French vineyards. 

Disk plows are quite generally used to plow the land before plant- 
ing, being set to plow at the utmost depth their construction permits. 
After plowing, trenches 2 or 3 feet deep are made with hand tools. 
Deep, loose, friable loams, on a gentle slope to allow good drainage, 
are the lands preferred by South African farmers for vineyards. 
Planting is done during the first days of August. Perhaps the most 
common distance at which vines are planted is 4 by 6 feet. In the 
winter the vineyards are plowed about 6 inches deep with a vineyard 
plow for the purpose of loosening the soil and destroying weeds. 
This operation in the past was often done by hand with spades and 
forks, as hand digging is preferred by the farmers. The scarcity of 
labor, however, has made the use of one-horse plows and scarifiers 
more general in recent years. Cultivation is done in the summer to 
keep the soil loose and open, to destroy weeds, and to preserve the 
natural moisture of the soil. Where 20 inches of rain are obtained 
irrigation is not considered necessary if adequate cultiva;tion of the 
soil is practiced. Cultivation is continued until the grapes start col- 
oring. Because the work is chiefly done by natives it is very impor- 
tant that the plows, horse hoes, and scarifiers (particularly the last 
mentioned) should be so constructed that all braces connecting the 
frame with the handle project as little as possible, so as to prevent 
the braces from striking the young grapes and damaging them. 

Animal and vegetable manures are often buried in the center of 
the rows about 18 inches deep. For this purpose a furrow is made 
with the plow, which, if it does not go deep enough (as is often the 
case), is followed by natives with spades in order to obtain the 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 95 

required depth. A narrow-cut plow to perform this operation would 
no doubt become popular among the viticulturists of South Africa. 
An abundance of lime is necessary in soils where vines are planted, 
and, since South African soils are very deficient in lime, there is 
undoubtedly a good opening also for a ground-lime distributor, of 
an adequate width and for one horse, to distribute lime as a dressing 
in vineyards at the rate of from 1 to 2 tons per acre. 

A great hindrance to the proper development of viticulture in 
South Africa in the past has been the enormous fluctuation in the 
price of wine and brandy from year to year and the want of a for- 
eign market. When the preferential tariff in favor of Cape wines was 
abolished by England in 1866, the exportation of wine dropped to 
about one-tenth of what it had been before. In 1856, 720,209 gal- 
lons of wine were exported, whereas in 1915 the amount was 82,564 
gallons. Since 1905 the Government has energetically worked to 
improve the wine industry,, and cooperative wineries under Govern- 
ment supervision, provided with modern machinery and methods of 
fermentation, have been established. An Oenological Institute was 
founded at Elsenburg in 1913, with the object of studying and dis- 
tributing levures and dealing with ferment, etc. There is much 
evidence that South African viticulture is now in a satisfactory 
condition. The poorer vintages of the last season in southern Eu- 
rope and northern Africa, which doubled and trebled the price of 
wine in Europe, stimulated the export trade of Cape wines. In the 
first six months of 1916 the value of the wines and spirits exported by 
South Africa was more than six times as great as during the corre- 
sponding period of the previous year. The advanced legislation 
against the adulteration of liquor is also expected to assist in creat- 
ing a name and a demand for South African wines and brandies 
overseas. Whereas the import duty on spirits is $5 per proof gal- 
lon. South African wine and brandy of no higher strength than 
22 o/p pays an excise duty of $1.25, and when of a higher strength 
it pays $2.50 per proof gallon. 

The union's trade commissioner in London recently reported on 
the excellent opening that exists at present for the sale of Cape wines 
and brandies in England, and advised South African producers to 
make as large shipments as possible of such types as can take the 
place of those to which the English public is accustomed. It is not 
unlikely that after the war England will grant a rebate on duties 
imposed on wine produced in the British colonies; such a measure 
should benefit the South African viticultural industry in particular. 

FRUITS. 

Fruit growing on a commercial basis, having as its object the build- 
ing up of an export trade, may be said to have derived its initial 
impetus from the late Cecil Rhodes. Toward the end of the last 
century Mr. Ehodes caused a quarter of a million deciduous fruit 
trees to be planted in Paarl, Stellenbosch, and Wellington, in the 
Cape Province. The result of these plantings was an export trade 
with England during the first years of this century that, from small 
beginnings, has now approached half a million boxes annually. The 



96 



AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEBY. 



following table, although applying to the census of 1911, will give 
an idea of the classes of fruit chiefly grown in Cape Province : 



Kinds of fruit. 



Number of trees. 



Bearing. 



Not bear- 
ing. 



Peaches 

Apples 

Oranges 

Apricots . . . 

Pears 

Plums 

Nectarines. 

Total 



1,156,387 
464,250 
281, 133 
306, 975 
239, 997 
283, 119 
25, 908 



261,639 

239,365 

187,882 

73, 231 

149, 632 

93,265 

15,877 



2,757,769 



1,020,891 



Practically all other fruits are grown, although on a small scale. 

Grapes were, perhaps, the first fruit to be exported, and the success 
attending the early experiments, synchronizing as it did with the 
establishment of the Rhodes fruit farms, soon induced other farmers 
to turn their attention to the oversea markets, not only for grapes 
but for other fruits. The exports of South African fruit for three 
recent years were as follows: Fresh fruit— 1913, $1,261,735; 1914, 
$2,293,800; 1915, $1,551,950. All other— 1913, $15,915; 1914, $123,- 
245; 1915, $520,835. Total— 1913, $1,277,650; 1914, $2,417,045; 1915, 
$2,072,785. The decrease of exports in 1915 may undoubtedly be 
accounted for by the high ocean freight rates and scarcity of tonnage. 

The growing and exportation of oranges are increasingly occupy- 
ing the attention of farmers. Oranges can be produced in many dis- 
tricts throughout the Union, especially near the coast, although the 
best coastal fruits are produced some 12 miles inland, or have an 
intervening mountain range between them and the sea. Most excel- 
lent oranges are grown at Fort Beaufort, Oudtshoorn, and in other 
southeastern districts, while in the western part of the Province 
Clan William and surrounding districts are famous for the fine t^^pe 
of oranges produced. South Africa, being in the southern hemi- 
sphere, has the advantage that the season for the ripening of oranges 
synchronizes with the summer in Europe. When Europe is at its 
hottest this most refreshing fruit can be put on the market and, 
owing to the modern methods of transportation and packing, arrive 
in a fresh and juicy condition. It is stated on good authority that 
in the next two or three years 1,000,000 boxes of oranges will be avail- 
able for export, and this figure is likely to be doubled three or four 
years thereafter. The rate at which orange trees are now being 
planted is estimated at 100,000 per annum. Washington, ^aval, and 
Valencia Late are the varieties chiefly grown, and Californian meth- 
ods of cultivating orange groves are closely followed in South Africa, 
irrigation also being often resorted to. 

Another type of fruit that is being grown chiefly with an eye 
toward the export trade is pineapples. The districts near Grahams- 
town, especially Bathurst, have a large acreage planted with pine- 
apples. The rainfall is 26 inches per annum, making irrigation 
unnecessary. Two crops are produced every year, one in winter and 
the other in summer, and the chief of the division of horticulture 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 97 

states that a conservative estimate would give $1,000 per acre per 
annum as a fair return for pineapples grown in that district. 

Land suitable for pineapples can be obtained at $50 per acre. The 
pineapples are planted in rows 5 feet apart, and there is an opening 
for cultivators whose construction will permit cultivation of the 
land between the pineapple rows, covering the full width of the row 
at the beginning and susceptible of being adjusted to a narrower 
width to cultivate the soil after the pineapple plants have grown to 
a point where the free space between the rows becomes smaller. The 
Queen variety of pineapple, a small type weighing less than 20 
ounces, is chiefly grown, and the prices realized by farmers, while 
varying greatly in normal seasons, are about $1.50 per dozen. This 
particular pineapple is very hardy and carries well for export. 
Besides the supplying of the local market, several thousand cases 
have been exported during recent years, and the Union's trade com- 
missioner in London some time ago cabled for shipments of 1,000 
cases weekly; thus far the pineapples have not gone forward in 
anything like the quantity asked, and this fact speaks well for the 
chances of greatly extending this industry. 

Natal also produces fine pineapples, but it does not appear that 
they are grown as much for the export trade as is the case in Bathurst 
and adjoining districts. The fruit grown is much softer and con- 
sequently not so suitable for export. 

In addition to the increasing quantities of deciduous fruits ex- 
ported, it is necessary to consider the large local demand in order 
to appreciate the present extent of this industry. Hitherto the 
southwestern districts of Cape Province have been the chief pro- 
ducers of this type of fruit. It is estimated that the consumption 
of deciduous fruits in Johannesburg and its immediate surroundings 
is much in excess of $500,000 per annum. Outside of the southwest- 
ern districts of Cape Province, no deciduous fruits are produced for 
the foreign trade, but it is anticipated that before long an export 
business will develop in connection with the apple industry, which 
has been making great strides in the Orange Free State and the 
eastern portion of the Transvaal. 

Until recently South Africa depended a great deal on foreign 
supplies of dried, preserved, and canned fruits, despite the fact that 
the country produced most excellent fresh fruits of all kinds. Even 
during the year 1915 no less than $350,000 was sent abroad by South 
Africa in payment of importations of these classes of fruit. The 
southwestern districts of Cape Province are undoubtedly quite able 
to supply a first-class article so far as quality is concerned, but it 
seems necessary first to break down the prejudice against the pre- 
served fruits of that district arising from the class of labor used. 
As a better knowledge is obtained of factory sanitation and of all 
phases of the manufacture of preserved fruits the situation will as- 
suredly improve. This industry has been benefited by war condi- 
tions, which have enhanced the local demand because of the scarcity 
of supplies from overseas and transportation delays and difficulties. 
The development of the sugar industry of Natal will no doubt be a 
stimulating factor in expanding this industry. 

One of the chief difficulties encountered in connection with the ex- 
portation of South African tresh fruits has been the expensiveness 

1276°— 17— N0.14G 7 



98 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

of fruit boxes; nearly $1,000,000 is spent every year for fruit boxes, 
but the manufacture of boxes of wattle wood has recently been started, 
and this is likely to result in lowering the cost of tMs article to the 
farmers. 

In order to encourage the development of fruit export trade the 
Union Castle Steamship Co. grants very low rates, and it has made 
provision for adequate cold storage in each steamer, these facilities 
being enlarged as the trade increases. 

ALFALFA. 

According to the census of 1911 there were at that time 154,575 
acres of land in the Union devoted to alfalfa growing. On every 
farm where conditions are faA^orable, whenever irrigation can be 
resorted to, this crop is cultivated. Alfalfa is a great favorite with 
South African farmers, and since the census was taken there has 
been a very substantial increase in the area devoted to it. It is esti- 
mated in some quarters that during that time the acreage under al- 
falfa has been doubled. Arabian and Province varieties of alfalfa 
are perhaps those most widely grown. .The yields vary greatly, the 
average being about IJ tons per annum per acre. The Karroo dis- 
tricts are those in which this plant is most extensively grown; it is 
the chief crop in those sections devoted to the rearing of ostriches, 
alfalfa being the staple food for their maintenance. Cape Province 
grows about 80 per cent of the alfalfa produced in the Union. In 
the Oudtshoorn district very big prices have been paid for alfalfa 
land — as much as $1,500 per acre in some cases. 

It would appear that the possibilities of selling some of the im- 
proved alfalfa tools produced in the United States are fairly sub- 
stantial. Mowers and hand and self -dump rakes are used in great 
numbers, as well as hay presses. Little progress has so far been 
made, however, in inducing the South African farmers to use side- 
delivery rakes and tedders. Owing to the intensity of the sun, 
which quickly cures and drys the hay after it has been cut, it is felt 
that quick handling of the crop is essential to obtain uniformity of 
curing; otherwise the top of the cut rows of alfalfa becomes ex- 
tremely dry, while the hay underneath is still too green and unfit to 
be stacked. Hay loaders, sweep rakes, and stackers could be sold in 
fair numbers if steps were taken to familiarize the farmers with the 
advantages derived from using these valuable machines. 

Teff grass and paspalum are also popular grasses in South Africa. 
It is estimated that more than 50,000 acres of land are devoted to 
their cultivation. Under ordinary conditions teff grass will produce 
from 2 to 3 tons of hay per acre in a single cutting, and three cuts 
per year are often obtained. It is often grown as a dry-land crop. 

For many years past alfalfa cultivators built with a frame simi- 
lar to that of a disk harrow, and with a revolving set of spikes in- 
stead of disks, Avere used in large numbers to cultivate alfalfa and 
other grasses. Owing to the hardness of the soil, however, it was 
ascertained that in a great many cases the points of the spikes be- 
came dull, and under those conditions they would press the short 
alfalfa heads into the ground, instead of loosening the soil around 
the jDlants as was intended. Disk harrows, therefore, have lately 
been more largely used for that purpose. Any machine or device 



MARKETS I^^ SOUTH AFEICA. ^ 

produced to cultivate alfalfa is certain to find a ready and sub- 
stantial market in South Africa, and if the quality of the work is 
satisfactory price would be a minor consideration in the adoption of 

such machinery. 

TEA. 

Of the 5,000 acres of tea grown in Natal, the only Province where 
this plant is cultivated, about 4,250 acres are in the district of Lower 
Tugela. Alexandra, Inanda, and Lower Umzimkulu are the only 
other districts where tea is groAvn. The production in 1911 is given 
as 2,140,000 pounds of green tea. Owing to the stoppage of Indian 
immigration, there is a tendency to abandon the cultivation of tea 
rather than to increase the area. A fairly large proportion of the 
crop is shipped to London for blending purposes. Since a tea field 
does not require replanting for about half a century this crop is un- 
important so far as the sale of farm machinery is concerned. 

POULTRY AND EGGS. 

More than $1,000,000 worth of eggs were imported in 1907, whereas 
less than $100,000 worth were imported in 1915. In 1915 poultry 
valued at a little more than $100,000 was Exported. Until recently 
there was only one poultry expert attached to the Government serv- 
ice; five are now employed. The poultry industry is making good 
progress, and a substantial export trade in both poultry and eggs is 
likely to be established in the near future. Eelatively speaking, a 
fair business in incubators and other requisites connected with poultry 
farming is being done in South Africa. 

PIGS. 

Owing to the intense summer heat the curing of bacon must be con- 
fined to three or four winter months. The value of the ham, bacon, 
and salted meats imported has been uniformly maintained at about 
$1,000,000 per annum for the past five years. According to the census 
of 1911, the number of pigs in the Union l^ad increased by about 60 
per cent since 1904. Much attention has been given to pig raising in 
the past few years, and it is not improbable that South Africa will 
shortly provide for its own requirements in that line. 

TRUCK FARMING. 

With the exception of potatoes, the growing of vegetables is limited 
to the production of the supplies necessary for the large centers of 
population, and the industry is in the hands of Indians, Greeks, Ger- 
mans, and Italians. Only the most simple tools are used, since very 
small plots of land are cultivated by an individual. It is estimated 
that the total receipts of the produce sold in Johannesburg market 
amount to about $4,000,000. Potatoes are. in a few cases, grown on 
a larger scale, but the trade in potato machinery is insignificant, one 
of the larger firms in the trade stating that it sells less than a dozen 
machines per annum. About 60,000 acres are planted yearly with 
potatoes. It is probable that this business will show a gi'adnal im- 
provement in the future. 

WATTLE BARK. 

The production of wattle bark is an industry of the greatest im- 
portance to the Province of Natal, and one that is rapidly increasing 



100 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

in magnitude. At the beginning of the Avar, unfortunately, wattle- 
bark growers lost the German markets which for years had absorbed 
almost the whole of their product, and for a time the outlook was far 
from bright. During the latter months of 1914 efforts were made 
to find outlets in England, and since the beginning of 1915 the situa- 
tion has considerably improved, this change having been aided by 
the fact that bark buyers have been found in America and Eussia, 
to which countries many thousand tons of bark have been shipped 
during the last year or two. The prices obtained have also been 
fairl}^ satisfactory, although it appears that the price of bark has 
greatly declined as the supplies have increased. In 1904 the aver- 
age price was $48 per ton ; in 1910, $40.50 ; and in October, 1914, $38.25. 

In view of the difficulties in marketing chopped bark, such as has 
ordinarily been sent by South Africa heretofore, a factorj^ is now 
being installed to make solid extract from wattle bark, and this will 
undoubtedly assist very greatly in the development of this industry. 
The Natal Agricultural Cooperative Union (Ltd.), among the mem- 
bership of which are found the principal owners of wattle planta- 
tions, is behind the project. 

Approximately 250,000 acres are planted with wattle in Natal. 
The exports in 1912 amounted to 59,110 tons, valued at about $1,415,- 
300. The chief market before the war was Germany, the tanneries 
of Great Britain requiring the tanning material in the form of ex- 
tract. Consequently, the market, as already stated, became dislocated 
at the time of the outbreak of hostilities, and in 1915 only 44,830 tons 
were exported, valued at about $976,200. The industry is evidently 
recovering at the present time, as during the first six months of 1916 
the exports of wattle bark increased nearly 100 per cent over those 
for the corresponding period of the preceding year. 

The question of utilizing the waste wood of wattle plantations for 
the distillation of acetic acid, alcohol, and other products is being con- 
sidered at the present time, and if this project materializes, as is 
practically certain to be the case, the industry will unquestionably 
benefit greatly. There is not much trade in agricultural machinery 
and implements in connection with the wattle-bark industry. The 
machinery used for extracting the tanning contents of the bark is of 
a class not included in strictly farming machinery. 

DAIRYING. 

The early history of creameries in South Africa was somewhat dis- 
couraging, but of late the dairying industrj^ has been placed on a much 
sounder footing. New creameries are springing up in different dis- 
tricts, and, whereas 10 years ago it is doubtful whether there were 
more than 5 creameries in the Union, to-day there may be 50, about 
equally divided between privately owned and cooperative establish- 
ments. Twelve of the cooperative creameries received grants from 
public funds to assist in their establishment, the money being ad- 
vanced on the doUar-per-dollar basis, repayable by installments and 
carrying a reasonable rate of interest. One group of cooperative 
creameries in the Orange Free State sends about 1,000,000 pounds of 
butter to the Johannesburg market every year. The establishment 
of these creameries has done the farmer much good, for whereas in the 
old days he could market only a small amount of butter, to-day he can 
sell as much butter fat as he can produce at a remunerative price. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFBICA. 101 

A considerable portion of the Union is well adapted to dairy 
farming. The climate is mild, and cattle thrive well on the natural 
vegetation for six to eight months of the year. The dread of dis- 
ease has to a large extent been overcome by dipping the cattle, while 
the numerous irrigation schemes that have been and still are being 
undertaken are proving of great assistance in enabling dairy farm- 
ers to grow forage crops for winter consumption and to carry the 
stock over times of drought. The principal crops grown for feeding 
dairy cattle in the Union are maize, alfalfa, oats, teff grass, man- 
gels, rye, and cowpeas. The value of ensilage is beginning to be 
realized, and silos are increasing in number in all parts of the 
country. 

The Department of Agriculture is doing a great deal to assist the 
development of the dairy industry and has established a division 
of dairying consisting of a superintendent of dairying and six in- 
spectors. In each of the four Provinces of the Union a dairy in- 
structor is stationed whose duty is to travel among farmers and 
give instructions and advice in approved methods of production and 
other matters pertaining to dairying. Lectures and demonstrations 
are given by officers of the division at suitable places, including agri- 
cultural shows, on butter and cheese making as well as milk and 
cream testing. The Government has now under consideration the 
granting of financial assistance to milk-record and cow-testing soci- 
eties, and it is hoped that this will encourage the establishment of 
dairy cattle in the Union. 

The superintendent of dairying made an extensive tour of Aus- 
tralia and New Zealand in 1914 with the object of acquiring informa- 
tion regarding the systems in vogue there in connection with the 
exportation of dairy produce; this indicates that the Government 
feels that the Union will soon be able to enter the dairy export trade. 
A special course in dairying has recently been instituted at the Groot- 
fontein Agricultural College with the object of fitting young men for 
the industry. A traveling dairy and the provision of educational 
facilities to train women in the making of dairy products has re- 
cently engaged the attention of Parliament, and Premier Botha, in a 
debate on the question, discouraged the exportation of maize and 
advocated its wider use to build up the dairy, pork, and meat indus- 
tries of the country. 

There were 1,900,230 dairy cows in the Union in 1911, according 
to the census of that year. Generally speaking, they produce rather 
a small quantity of milk, but of very good quality. The annual quan- 
tity of milk produced per cow naturally varies greatly with locality 
and season, averaging probably for the whole of the Union some- 
thing under 200 gallons, while the average quality is probably about 
3.5 per cent butter fat in the milk. During the last few years a num- 
ber of pure-bred cattle have been imported into South Africa, the 
Union Castle Steamship Co. carrying them in its steamers from 
Europe free of freight charges. Numbers of progressive farmers are 
building up first-class dairy herds, some of which average a milk 
yield of 800 to 1,000 gallons per coav per annum. In grading up native 
stock, with a A'iew to increasing the size and milk production, bulls of 
the Shorthorn, Friesland. and Ayrshire breeds are generally used. 

The chief causes that have restricted the progress of this industry 
in the past, such as inefficient and inexperJenced native labor, un- 



102 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMEK^TS AND MACHINERY. 



familiarity of the farmers with the proper methods of handling the 
milk and cream, the low type of dairy stock, and the high cost of 
running the creameries, are gradually being removed, principally as 
a result of the effective support given by the Government to alf the 
measures tending to bring about improved conditions in the industry. 
It is agreed in South Africa that there is a great future for that 
country in connection with the dairy industry, and it is anticipated 
that at no very distant date the Union will take a place among the 
large exporters of dairy products. Two experiments in butter ex- 
portation were made in 1914 to London, and one of the consign- 
ments w^as reported as unsurpassed by butter from any other British 
dominion. The importation of dair}^ utensils in 1915 was larger 
than in the preceding year, this being the only item among the requi- 
sites for agriculture showing an increase during that year. 

The production of butter in the Union for the year 1913 is given 
as 10,741,745 pounds (valued at about $260,000), as follows: Pro- 
duced by creameries, 7,659,748 pounds; produced by farmers and 
sold on markets, 2,237,219 pounds; produced by farmers and sold to 
merchants, 844,778 pounds. 

During that year 10,085,139 pounds of cream and 5,232,848 gallons 
of milk were sold. The imports of butter, which amounted to 
11,127,139 pounds in 1906, decreased^ to 2,026,258 pounds in 1915, 
and 96,570 pounds were exported during the latter year. The total 
value of butter and cheese imports in 1903 is given as $5,460,213, 
whereas in 1915 it was only $1,350,258. 

The production of cheese in 1913 is given as 520,849 pounds, valued 
at $92,000. In 1914 605,686 pounds of cheese, valued at $133,000, 
were produced. In 1915 3,966,269 pounds of cheese were imported, 
representing a decrease of about 35 per cent as compared with the 
preceding year. 

There are about 50 small cheese factories in the Union at present, 
the principal varieties manufactured being Cheddar and Gouda. 
This branch of the industry is also receiving considerable attention; 
new factories are being established, and a greatly increased output 
is expected in the immediate future. 

CATTLE. 

The following table (census of 1911) shows the number and per- 
centage of cattle in the Union in the possession of (1) persons of 
European or white race, (2) other than European or white: 



Provinces. 


Race. 


Total. 


Bulls. 


Cows. 


Oxen. 


All others. 


Cape Province 


/Whites.. 
\Others . . 
/ Whites. - 
\Others.. 
/Whites.. 
\Others . . 
/Whites.. 
\Others.. 


1,186,620 

1,528,710 

'244,011 

212,076 

1,031,014 

255,220 

864,087 

475,211 


25,427 

40,667 

5,686 

9,988 

19,346 

5,305 

19,552 

19,587 


372,082 

535, 241 

78,734 

62,657 

305,658 

75,298 

279,523 

191,037 


327,554 

445,791 

47,854 

30,525 

293,016 

75,914 

278,391 

121,321 


461,547 


Natal 


507, Oil 
111,73? 


Orange Free State 


108, 906 

412,994 

98, 703 

286,621 


Transvaal 




143, 266 


Total 


/Whites.. 
\Others.. 


3,325,732 
2,471,217 


70,011 

75,547 


1,035,997 
864,233 


946,825 
673,551 


1,272,899 




8d7, »8o 


Grand total 




5,796,949 


145,558 


1,900,230 


1,620,376 


2,130,785 








Percentage 


/Whites.. 
\Others.. 


57.37 
42.63 


48.10 
51.90 


54.52 
45.48 


58.43 
41.57 


59.74 
40.26 





MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 103 

In 1904. according to the census of that year, there were 3,500,453 
head of cattle in the four Provinces of the Union : in 1911 there were 
5,796.949, an increase of 65 per cent in seven years. In the Cape 
Province the increase was 39 per cent. In N'atal there was a decrease 
of 31 per cent, due to the ravages of East Coast fever, now practi- 
cally stayed. In the Transvaal the increase was 160 per cent, and 
in the Orange Free State it amounted to no less than 254 per cent. 
The mortality of cattle during 1911 was 437,873, or a little over 7^ 
per cent. It is officially estimated that at the beginning of 1916 the 
cattle in the Union numbered about 8,000,000. 

There is perhaps no country in the world in which such an in- 
crease of cattle has taken place during the period under review, and 
this fact is the more remarkable in view of the ravages of East Coast 
fever in certain parts of the country. In part it is due to the preser- 
vation of practically all animals capable of breeding and to the large 
number of high-class animals imported for breeding purposes. Also, 
more care has been taken of both the imported and the native ani- 
mals, with the result that the general standard of the live stock 
throughout the country is much higher than it was. Considering 
both the increase in numbers and the improvement in the qualit3^ 
South Africa may be well pleased with the progress made in the last 
10 years. This improvement is strongl}^ reflected in the almost entire 
cessation of imports of beef and mutton, as shown in the following 
figures: 1903 (excluding the Orange Free State, for which no fig- 
ures are available), $14,139,852; 1906, $3,683,940; 1914, $107,188; 
1915, $3,542. 

The average number of cattle per head of population in 1911 was 
as follows: Cape Province, 1.06; Natal, 0.38; Orange Free State, 
2.44; Transvaal, 0.79; and for the entire Union, 0.97. The number 
of cattle per square mile in 1911 was: Cape Province. 9.80; Natal, 
12.92 ; Orange Free State, 25.53 ; Transvaal, 12.13 ; and for the entire 
Union, 12.25. 

The districts in Cape Province having between 50 and 100 cattle 
per square mile were East London, Glen Grey, Herschel, King Wil- 
liams Town, Komgha, Peddie, Stockenstroom, and Victoria East. 
Practically all districts in the Transkei are in this category. Albert 
is the only district in Natal with such an average, while in the Trans- 
vaal there are Boksburg, Germiston, and Johannesburg (probably 
because of their mining population) , and, in the Orange Free State, 
Ficksburg and Ladybrand. The district of Nqamaqwe, in the 
Transkei, had the greatest number of cattle per square mile, the 
average being 92.93. The value of cattle hides exported in 1915 was 
$2,814,107. An increasing number of hides are converted into leather 
in the tanneries of the Union. 

Increasing attention has been paid during the last 10 years to the 
improvement of both beef and dairy herds, and already a marked 
advance is noticeable. The example set by the Government has 
stimulated private owners to take up the breeding of improved 
stock, and during the past three years a stimulus has been given to 
the movement by the importation of large numbers of pedigreed 
stock from Europe, made possible by the w^illingness of the Union 
Castle Steamship Co. to carry free of freight from England all pedi- 
greed stock intended to improve the South African herds. Since the 
initiation of this scheme, the following importations of pedigreed 



104 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

stock have taken place: 200 stallions, 135 mares, 1 pony, 668 bulls, 
298 cows, 1,185 heifers. 21 calves, 57 boars, 123 sows, 107 rams, and 
1,020 ewes. The estimated freight on the above stock, had it paid 
the ordinary rate, would have been about $230,000. 

For beef purposes, Shorthorn, Hereford, Sussex, and Aberdeen 
Angus breeds are chiefly used to improve the local herds. The Short- 
horn is used where the land is good, the pasturage luxuriant, and the 
climatic conditions favorable. It is seen most often in western Natal 
and the eastern uplands of Transvaal and Orange Free State Prov- 
inces. The other three breeds have shown that they possess more 
hardihood than the Shorthorn and are therefore better suited to the 
areas where less favorable conditions prevail. The Hereford has 
proved its suitability in the higher land of eastern Transvaal and the 
Transkei territories. The Sussex is A^ery popular in northern Trans- 
vaal and in Rhodesia, where the best strictly ranching areas of South 
Africa are situated. The Aberdeen Angus is gradually finding 
favor in Natal. Friesland, Ayrshire, and Jersey breeds are most ex- 
tensively used for dairy purposes. Under good management Fries- 
lands are bred in the Union worthy of the finest specimens of this 
breed. Where no proper attention is as j^et given to feeding and 
shelter, a great deterioration in size and quality is to be found in 
many herds of Frieslands in South Africa. The Ayrshire proves 
adapted to less favorable conditions, where the soil and herbage is 
rather poor. Jerseys are very popular in the southwestern districts 
of Cape Province, where climatic conditions approximate those of 
their native land. Red Lincolns, South Devons, and Red Polls are 
also well-known breeds in South Africa as dual-purpose cattle. 

The Africander is a pure breed of ancient lineage. It is one of 
the indigenous breeds of the country. It should not be confused with 
what are often called "Africanders " — a mongrel breed, nondescript 
cattle that are of no special value for any particular purpose. At 
the present time it produces the best ox for draft purposes, and 
may be classed as a beef rather than a dairy type. It possesses quali- 
ties of hardihood and powers of maintaining its flesh under adverse 
conditions to a greater degree than breeds introduced from abroad. 
This is what might be expected, for the breed is to-day largely the 
result of the survival of the fittest; As a pure breed in the hands 
of skillful breeders, it can be turned to great account in cattle breed- 
ing in many parts of the country. The Africander is of a uniform 
red, like the Devon, has a massive frame, and is built on rather grace- 
ful lines. There are districts outside the coastal belt where pure- 
bred cattle do not thrive satisfactorily, and it has been found that 
crossing these breeds with the Africander strain has very consider- 
ably added to the hardiness of the cattle and greatly reduced the 
mortality. 

It is estimated that the investigation and control of the diseases 
of stock and plants cost the Government of South Africa more than 
$1,000,000 per annum, or roughly 80 per cent of the total expenditure 
of the Department of Agriculture. Since the Union was founded, in 
1910, the country has probably spent $5,000,000 for this purpose. 
The East Coast fever in cattle and scab in sheep are particularly 
annoying, and it is deplorable that in a country like South Africa, 
where there is so much to be done to put farming in line with the 
progressive countries of the world, and where money is so scarce, 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFEICA. 105 

these two diseases should make necessary the expenditure mentioned 
and. indirectly, many times that amount. 

If every farmer did his duty they could be completely eradicated 
in a very short time. The regulations for that purpose are most 
excellent, but individual slackness and unresponsiveness are great 
obstacles in the path of those who wage war against live-stock dis- 
eases. Much remains to be done, but a great deal has been accom- 
plished in the last few years. Dipping of cattle and sheep is almost 
universally practiced, and as the country becomes more closely 
settled the custom of pasturing the stock in the highlands in the 
summer and trekking to the warmer lowlands in the winter is rap- 
idly disappearing. This custom has often been the means of spread- 
ing disease, as in thus moving the cattle if they carry disease it is 
spread throughout the country they traversed. The better feeding 
of cattle has no doubt also helped to keep back disease. When no 
winter feed was available a large percentage of cattle grew up 
stunted from the time of birth on account of lack of food, and for 
that reason more liable to suffer in the event of disease attack. For 
this reason farmers are often met nowadays who deprecate the expor- 
tation of South African maize, as they claim that all the grain 
exported can be used much more profitably in providing the stock 
of the country with the food and nourishment they require. 

MEAT EXPORT TRADE. 

South African public opinion has been powerfuU}' moved during 
the past three years on the subject of the meat export trade. The 
interest manifested has been remarkable. The outbreak of war in 
August, 1914, hastened matters considerably and has been responsible 
in no small measure for the progress already made. The enhanced 
prices realized for frozen beef since the beginning of hostilities have 
undoubtedly encouraged the promoters of the trade and more fre- 
quent and heavier shipments have been made from South Africa to 
London than would have been attempted under normal conditions. 

The number of cattle available for export after the needs of the 
Union are served can hardly be estimated, but there is reason to 
believe that a surplus already exists and that within a few years it 
will be very large. The herds of cattle have increased greatly, both 
in number and in size. In comparing the cattle census of the Union 
with that of the other meat-exporting countries it should be borne 
in mind that in South Africa the animals constituting the natural 
increase of the herds have been kept for the fuller stocking of the 
farms on which the animals are bred or sold to persons occupying 
farms in process of development, and that they have also been used 
for transport purposes. 

The first exports worth recording of South African meat took 
place in 1914, when meat of a value of $202,918 was shipped. In 
1915 these exports increased to $744,288, and had there been more 
shipping available a much larger figure would be shown. An order 
for 40.000 quarters of beef was placed during the early part of 1916 
with a South African firm, w^hich is a record meat order for South 
Africa. The reports made by experts on the London meat market 
have revealed deficiencies in South African consignments in respect 
to slaughtering, dressing, and freezing. Some of the defects have 



106 AGBICULTTJEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

already been remedied, and with added experience and greater skill 
in butchering they should be entirely removed. In respect to quality, 
South African shipments of beef have varied very considerably. On 
some favorable comments have been made, but on others reports indi- 
cate that the quality leaves much to be desired. Younger beasts are 
required, animals not employed for working purposes and artificially 
fed when the pastures are poor. On the whole, the shipments made 
thus far are said to compare favorably with the pioneer shipments 
of Australia and i^rgentina, and several smaller consignments espe- 
cially bred and fed at the Government experimental farm at Cedara, 
Natal, were pronounced to be of excellent qualit}^ and flavor, equal 
to anything from those two countries. 

Several South African firms have made arrangements to devote 
themselves to meat exporting, chief among them being the Imperial 
Cold Storage and Supply Co., a strong company with an annual 
turnover of more than $7,000,000 and with offices in all the im- 
portant cities of South Africa. In 1915 this firm sent 635 tons 
of meat, which formed the bulk of the exports during that year. 
The Farmers' Cooperative Meat Industries (Ltd.), a subsidiary con- 
cern of the progressive Natal Agricultural Cooperative Union (Ltd.). 
of Pietermaritzburg, was recently launched with a capital of 
$100,000, to engage chiefly in the meat-export business. This con- 
cern intends to utilize all the by-products connected with the 
slaughtering industry, and also to undertake, on a larger scale, the 
importation of pedigreed stock. Various shipments to England 
have been made by this company with very satisfactory results. 
A number of companies have also been formed in the past few 
months to undertake the ranching business on a big scale. The 
Swaziland Eanching and Development Co. (Ltd.) intends to stock 
fully 145,000 acres of land that it has in Swaziland, where 30,000 
head of cattle will be pastured in the near future. The Anglo-Swazi 
Co. also controls large areas in Swaziland, which it plans to stock 
shortly. 

It must be noted, however, that under the conditions prevailing 
in South Africa the beef supply will not be obtained from large 
ranches to any considerable extent but, for the most part, will be 
produced on farms carrying a few hundred head. It is also to be 
remembered that, like other countries, the Union possesses certain 
areas well suited for the raising of young cattle, and that other 
districts where suitable crops are grown are better adapted for 
fattening purposes. The effective utilization of resources will remedy 
a deplorable condition, since in the past more than 75 per cent of the 
cattle were slaughtered before they were properly fattened. By 
bringing the stock into proper condition, the supply of meat from 
the same number of animals can be easily increased 10 to 20 per 
cent. 

SHEEP AND WOOL. 

South Africa has no clearly defined areas for sheep farming, but 
in almost every district of the Union there are farms suitable for 
that purpose. Generally speaking, the country is well adapted for 
sheep breeding, with vast areas where merino sheep, the type chiefly 
reared in South Africa, do exceedingly well. The breeding of cross- 
bred sheep is strongly advocated on account of the demand for wool 



MARKETS IX SOUTH AFRICA. 



107 



of that kind and the fact that cross-bred sheep produce mutton more 
suitable for export than that of merino sheep. Considering the 
present importance of this industry, the statement recently made by 
one of the Union Government's sheep and wool experts that " some 
of the best sheep country in the Union is to be found in those dis- 
tricts where the flocks are as j^et but few *' is extremely encouraging. 
A great proportion of the lands devoted to sheep raising are rather 
bush growth than grass, and it is remarkable how drought-resisting 
the prevailing small bush has shown itself in the absence of a nor- 
mal rainfall. There are few places in the Cape Province, however, 
where a sheep can support life on less than 2 to 2^ acres of land, 
and in some parts of the Karroo this is increased to 3, 5, and even 12 
acres. Better provision of water and a supply of winter feed are 
essential requirements for the healthy progress of this industry, 
since, because of the improvidence of the farmers along these lines, 
there has been a considerable mortality of sheep in recent years. It 
is estimated that in 1915, in the Cape ProA'ince alone, 2,500.000 sheep 
died as a result of drought. 

A more regular food supply is also indispensable if South Africa 
is to embark upon the mutton export trade. At the present time the 
sheep industry is most flourishing in the eastern districts of Cape 
Province, where merino sheep preponderate greatly. The northwest- 
ern part of Cape Province also has large flocks of sheep, but they 
consist mostly of Africanda and bastard sheep, instead of merino. 
The Orange Free State has a much greater number of sheep in 
proportion to its area than any other Province of South Africa. 
Generally speaking, the sheep areas may be defined as situated in the 
eastern uplands of the Union, and chiefly in the northeastern part 
of Cape Province, where high-class sheep are mostly in evidence. In 
the western districts large flocks are to be seen, but common sheep 
are more often reared. 

It has been proved that sheeep are more liable to attack by scab 
in the lower altitudes of the Union, where the Boer farmers have 
hitherto trekked their flocks during the winter. The loss occasioned 
by scab to South African sheep farmers has been estimated at from 
$1,500,000 to $5,000,000 per annum in wool alone, and the shee]3skins 
would fetch much higher prices if the animals were free from disease. 
Stringent regulations for the eradication of scab have been in force 
throughout the country. An outbreak of disease must be reported 
to the sheep inspector and to all adjoining owners of land within 
seven days, and a certain amount of time is given for the cleansing 
of the sheep. Failure to do this makes the farmer liable to a fine not 
exceeding $250. 

The census of 1911 gives the following numbers of sheep in the 
various Provinces of the Union : 



Provinces. 


Wooled. 


Other. 


Total. 


Cape Province 




11,051,836 
1,105,023 
7, 355, 638 
2,330,304 


6,082,677 

414, 235 

1,232,686 

1,084,946 


17,134,513 
1,519,258 
8,587,638 
3,415,250 


Natal 


Orange Free State 


Transvaal 






Total 


21,842,801 


8,814,444 


30, 656, 659 







108 AGEICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AXD MACHINEKY. 

The percentage of sheep owned by the races of South Africa is as 
follows: Wooled — Europeans, 88.94; others, 11.06. Other than 
wooled — Europeans, 84.08; others, 15.92. 

In 1904 there were 16,322.503 sheep in the Union, showing that in 
1911 an increase had been attained of 87.82 per cent. In 1911 there 
were 5.13 sheep per head of population, and the number of sheep per 
square mile in the various Provinces was as follows : Cape Province, 
61.86; mtal, 43.05; Orange Free State, 170.43; Transvaal, 30.93. 
Only Cape and Orange Free State Provinces had districts with more 
than 250 sheep per square mile. These were as follows : Cape Prov- 
ince — Albert, Aliwal North, Barkly East, Cathcart, Molteno, Queens- 
town, Stockenstroom, Stutterheim, Wodehouse, Idutizwa, Nqamaqwe. 
Orange Free State — Bethulie, Rouxville, Smithfield, Wepener. The 
district of Barkly East, with a total of 47,230, led all the districts of 
the Union in the number of sheep per square mile. 

The mortality of sheep in 1911 is given as 3,759,057, as follows: 
Heartwater, 216,601; malarial catarrhal fever, 37,442; geilzieate, 
499,736; worms, 717,132; other causes, 2,288,146; total, 3,759,057. 

In recent years there has been a notable increase in the number of 
wooled sheep, with a corresponding decrease in the nonwooled type. 
The imports of fresh mutton, which amounted to $607,554 in 1908, 
decreased to $1,158 in 1915, and a small beginning has already been 
made in the exportation of mutton. 

Wool ranks first among South African exports of agricultural or 
pastoral produce. The exports of wool rose from 63,473,924 pounds 
'in 1905 to 170,009,886 pounds in 1915, an increase of nearly 170 per 
cent in 10 years. It may be added that since 1905 good progress has 
been made in the local manufacture of woolen blankets ; this industry 
now consumes a fair amount of South African wool, so the increased 
production of wool during the 10-year period mentioned was not 
improbably about 200 per cent. The value of the wool exported in 
1915 was $26,182,407 and that of the sheepskins $4,027,467. 

OSTRICHES AND OSTRICH FEATHERS. 

For the last three years ostrich farming and the feather industry 
have been suffering from an acute depression, following almost imme- 
diately a period of great prosperity. This depression was undoubt- 
edly brought about by the enormous and increasing production of 
feathers in the country and the vagaries of fashion. It has been 
suggested that the introduction of the antiplumage bill in the British 
Parliament in 1913 created a disturbing element, and the subsequent 
outbreak of war, with the restricted demand for all articles of luxury, 
brought about the present collapse of the feather industry. Exces- 
sive speculation in lands suitable for the rearing of ostriches and the 
enormous prices paid for good breeding birds are perhaps as largely 
responsible for the losses suffered by a large number of farmers as 
the dislocation of the feather market itself. 

A big and unexpected movement in feathers took place in 1915, as 
shown by the following statistics, which give the quantity of feathers 
exported in recent years, the total value, and the average price ob- 
tained per pound : 



MARKETS IIT SOUTH AFEICA. 109 



Years. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


Price per 
pound. 


1912 


999,704 

1,023,307 

755,325 

948,945 


$12,739,803 

14,373,631 

6,534,332 

3,619,566 


$12.74 


1913 


14.04 


1914 


8.65 


1915 


3.81 







From Januar}^ 1 to June 30, 1916, 274,882 pounds of feathers, 
valued at $1,546,243, at an average price of $5.62 per pound, were 
exported. The figures for the corresponding period of the previous 
year were 551,213 pounds, valued at $1,972,203, or $3.57 per pound. 
This shows that in 1916 the quantity exported decreased to one-half ; 
the value per pound, however, was 57 per cent greater. The prices 
obtained during 1915 were the lowest since the industry began, but 
a marked recovery is noted for the first six months of 1916. The low 
prices affected every fanner and particularly those specializing in 
breeding birds, since the sale of chicks and breeding and feather 
birds practicall}^ ceased. The farmers who had taken up ostrich 
raising during recent years and who paid the fancy prices prevailing 
when the industry was prosperous, were, in most cases, unable to 
withstand the depression, and a great number of them were thrown 
into insolvency. Those situated in the districts not well adapted 
for the ostrich gave up their birds entirely and confined themselves 
to their more legitimate callings. It is not likely, however, that a 
single bona fide ostrich farmer has wholly given up his birds, because 
of the belief that good times will return with settled economic con- 
ditions. ^Iien the feather slump first came efforts were made b}^ 
ostrich farmers to develop other branches of agriculture, such as 
sheep, cattle, and fruit: some relief was afforded by the large pur- 
chases of alfalfa by the military, which are reflected in the increased 
importations of hay presses and other hay tools during 1915 and 
1916. Unfortunately, the drought recently experienced in South 
Africa affected severely and particularly those districts in which the 
ostrich industry was most widely prosecuted, so that the combina- 
tion of low prices for feathers and the severe drought will make 
the total recovery of the ostrich farmers rather slow. 

The present position of the feather industry and its future pros- 
pects must be studied in the closest relation to the war, and one of 
the sources of satisfaction is that feathers are now moving instead 
of unduly accumulating to retard future operations. Every feather 
produced can be marketed if the farmer is willing to accept the price 
offered, and the fact that in these disturbed times all feathers can 
be sold is highly significant of a bigger demand when the war is over. 

By the time settled conditions return the reduction in the number 
of birds will have proceeded very far, and as the demand increases 
a scarcity of feathers will be experienced, which will result in enhanc- 
ing prices. The reduction in the number of ostriches in the Oudt- 
shoorn district, the chief ostrich-farming district of South Africa, dur- 
ing the 12 months preceding the preparation of this report has been 
estimated by two prominent buyers at 50 per cent; two others give 
the percentage as between 50 and 60 per cent ; while others compute it 
as high as between 65 and 70 per cent. It is very generally agreed 



110 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

that, on the whole, the number of ostriches has decreased about one- 
half since 1913. This reduction, fortunately, is mainly among the 
inferior birds, for all farniers are retaining their superior feather 
birds and breeders as a nucleus from which to increase their birds 
once the revival sets in. 

UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS AND WASTEFUL METHODS. 

One of the undesirable features in connection with ostrich farm- 
ing has been that many farmers have hitherto invested their all — 
both capital and activities — in that one industry, so that their pros- 
perity is entirely regulated by the state of the feather market. The 
industry enjoyed such favorable times a few years ago that many 
farmers became overconfident to the extent of speculating a great 
deal on the future of the enterprise. The long drought and the re- 
stricted demand have caused, therefore, most appalling losses, and in 
a great many cases farmers have been forced into bankruptcy. These 
unfavorable conditions have undoubtedly exercised a sobering in- 
fluence among the farmers interested, by emphasizing the advisability 
of adding other agricultural pursuits to that of ostrich raising, in- 
stead of specializing in that industry to the exclusion of all other 
branches of farming. Fruit and tobacco growing, the production of 
fodders, and dairying can be undertaken on nearly all farms where 
ostriches are kept, and much has already been accomplished in this 
direction in the chief ostrich districts. 

It is also admitted that, on account of the prosperity enjoyed by the 
ostrich industry in the past, extremely wasteful methods were fol- 
lowed. The general practice of allowing ostriches to pick their food 
from the alfalfa plants is said to impair greatly the vitality of the 
alfalfa fields because of the constant treading of the ostriches upon 
the plants. As is well known, anything treading on the crowns of 
the alfalfa plants on frosty mornings bruises them, and the subse- 
quent action of the sun results in burning them out. Experienced 
ostrich farmers believe that the most economical method is to cut the 
alfalfa and feed it to the birds, whereby an acre of alfalfa will sup- 
port double the number that it otherwise would. This method is 
still but little followed, but it will assuredly become more common in 
the future. Its general adoption would tend to stimulate greatly 
the demand for all kinds of hay-handling tools and machinery 
throughout the ostrich sections of the Union. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY. 

The great boom in ostriches began in 1880, when people of all sorts 
left their employment to participate in an undertaking that was 
thought to hold the certainty of a large fortune within a few 3^ears. 
One thousand dollars for a pair of birds was a common price, and 
particularl}^ fine birds sold sometimes for $5,000. Since 1882 os- 
triches have been bred from carefully selected strains, and first-class 
birds brought, until recent years, as much as $2,500 each for breeding 
purposes. In 1911 there were 728,087 ostriches in Cape Province, 
4,111 in Natal, 9,097 in Orange Free State, and 5,441 in Transvaal. 
The districts having 15 ostriches per square mile were all in Cape 
Province, led by Oudtshoorn with 66.9 ostriches per square mile and 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. Ill 

a total number of 110,578. Following in importance were Bathurst, 
Kobertson, Albany, Alexandria, Ladismith, Peddie, Steytlerville, 
and' Uitenhage. In 1904 there were 360,830 ostriches in South 
Africa, there having been, therefore, an increase of more than 105 
per cent in 1911. It is more than likely that the number of ostriches 
at the end of 1914 was nearly double that in 1911, but, as already 
indicated, there has been a great reduction since that year. 

CIRCUMSTANCES DETERMINING PRODUCTION AND PROFITS. 

A good ostrich will yield feathers of as much as five times thle 
value of a common bird, whose selling price may be $15 or $20. An 
exceptionally good bird should yield from 25 to 32 ounces of feathers 
and should give from 60 to 62 long whites and blacks and 60 to 70 
long blacks, in addition to the smaller body feathers. Birds fed on 
alfalfa can sometimes be plucked three times in two years, but once 
a year is a fair average, or twice in three years where food is less 
plentiful. The cock yields about twice as many feathers as the hen. 
A pair of birds breeds as often as three times in a year and can hatch 
some 16 or 17 eggs at a sitting. 

The ostrich does well from Calvinia on the west to beyond Crad- 
ock on the east, and from far beyond the confines of Cape Prov- 
ince on the north down to the coast on the south. The birds are 
most numerous around Robertson, Montagu, Oudtshoorn, and Ladi- 
smith. When fully grown they are allowed to run in camps of 1,000 
or more acres in extent, but where land can be perennially irrigated 
and alfalfa grown ostriches may also be kept permanently in inclosed 
spaces. In some cases, under these conditions, four or five birds can 
be fed on an acre. 

Before the slump, ostrich feathers figured second in the export list 
of South African agricultural and pastoral products, and ostrich 
farming has led to the extensive cultivation of alfalfa under irriga- 
tion and has given an impetus to fencing. By a process of careful 
selection feathers have been produced for which as much as $500 has 
been paid for a pound weight. Under favorable conditions and with 
a steady market the ostrich industry constitutes one of the most 
I'emunerative branches of farming, especially when it includes the 
sale of chicks and breeders. During the few years preceding the de- 
preciation of the feather market, the price of irrigated land rose 
from $125 to $500 per acre — amounts quite warranted on the returns 
from birds, but wholly unjustified on any other basis. 

GOATS AND MOHAIR. 

The common Cape goat is an improvement on the original breed, 
but it is of little value. It can thrive, however, where no other ani- 
mal can get a living, and is indispensable in many parts of the 
countr}^ where it forms one of the principal articles of food. The 
Angora goat is the result of a cross between the ordinaiy Boer goat 
ewe and high-class Angora rams introduced at great expense many 
years ago from Kashmir and Asia Minor. 

Statistics show that the average of mohair per annum on ench 
Angora goat is about 2J pounds. P]xports of mohnir started in 1857 
with $50 worth. Thev reached high-water mark in 1912, when 28,- 



112 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENT'S AND MACHINERY. 



479,727 pounds of mohair were exported, valued at $4,707,297. In 
1915, 16,304,378 pounds were exported, valued at $3,346,376. The 
value of the goatskins exported in 1915 was $1,289,014. The prices 
of mohair had been steadily increasing up to the outbreak of the war. 
In 1908 $0.18 per pound was paid, whereas in 1913 $0.23 was the 
price received. In 1915 the price averaged about $0.20 per pound. 
The number of goats in the Union of South Africa in 1911 was as 
follows : 



Provinces. 



Cape Province 

Natal 

Orange Free State 
Transvaal 

Total 



Angora i 



3,340,132 
127, 452 
545,577 
262,174 



Others. 



4,613,282 
861, 822 
502,994 

1,509,546 



4,275,335 7,487,644 



Total. 



7,953,414 

989,274 

1,048,571 

1,771,720 



11,762,979 



The percentage owned by the several races was: Angora — Eu- 
ropeans, 89.10; others, 10.90. Other than Angora — Europeans, 
44.22; others, 55.78. 

In 1911 there were the following number of goats per square mile : 
Cape, 28.71; Natal, 28.03; Orange Free State, 20.81; Transvaal, 
16.04. The following districts had more than 100 goats per square 
mile: Aberdeen, Bedford, Cradock, Glen Grey, Herschel, Jasen- 
ville, Somerset East, Steytlerville, St. Marks, and Tsomo. The 
greatest density was in the district of Jasenville, which had 200.51 
goats per square mile. In 1911 a total of 1,112,687 goats died — 65,605 
of heartwater, 31,811 of Nanta, and 1,012,271 from other causes. 
Goats increased 20.39 per cent between the years 1904 and 1911. 

Thanks to the efforts of breeders, the South African pure-breed 
Angora goat is truer to type than is its Asia Minor progenitor. It 
yields a fleece that is heavier and longer than the Turkish, equal in 
luster, and free from kemp. South Africa now exports annually 
about double the quantity of mohair that is shipped out of the Turk- 
ish Empire. 

HORSES, MULES, AND ASSES. 

It is estimated that five-sixths of South Africa is uninhabitable 
for horses, but, while the horses seen in the country are small in 
size, ugly, and underbred, they have proved to possess great powers 
of endurance and to be capable of standing many years of hard 
work. In recent years sires of the thoroughbred, hackney, Cleve- 
land, and Suffolk Punch types have been introduced, with the object 
of improving the make and shape and adding to size and bone. 
Horse sickness is at times a terrific plague, £^nd since it first ap- 
peared it has never been stamped out. Outbreaks seem to occur at 
intervals of from 10 to 15 years. If horses were not bred in a hap- 
hazard fashion, and proper shed accommodations were provided, the 
ravages of horse sickness would doubtless be greatly mitigated. 
Some parts of South Africa — especially around Kimberley and Vry- 
burg — are said to be unrivaled for the breeding of horses. 

The best mules of South Africa are bred by Spanish jackasses out 
of Cape mares, and the general run compare favorably with those to 



MARKETS IIT SOUTH AFRICA. 



113 



be seen in the best breeding countries of the world. Mules are less 
affected by sickness than horses, live longer, and are generally more 
hardy and better able to stand the rough treatment to which all 
animals in South Africa are subject. 

Asses are often used in the southwestern districts of Cape Prov- 
ince for agricultural work, although they are small and of scant 
weight. Eight are used to pull a 6-foot binder. These animals do 
not suffer from horse sickness, and they are bred in the eastern sec- 
tions of Bechuanaland and in Ehodesia. They prove most hardy 
for transport purposes and are thus employed in those sections where 
contagious diseases among the cattle prevent these from doing such 
work. 

The number of horses, mules, and asses in South Africa, according 
to the 1911 census, was as follows: 



Provinces. 


Total 
horses. 


Horses, 

stud 
stallion. 


Brood 
mares. 


Other 

horses 

and 

mares. 


Mules. 


Asses. 


Cape Province 


333,962 
75,567 

220,725 
89,160 


15,217 
2,207 
7,027 
3,840 


95,228 
18,647 
83,109 
21,638 


223,517 
64,713 

130,589 
63,682 


47,059 

15,602 

5,995 

25,275 


191,086 


Natal 


28,018 
11,558 


Orange Free State 


Transvaal. . .-. 


106,048 






Total 


719,414 


28,291 


218,622 


472,501 


93,931 


336,710 





1276°— 17— No. 146- 



IV. MARKET FOR PARTICULAR LINES OF EQUIPMENT. 



The following table shows the number of agricultural machines in 
each Province of the Union of South Africa when the census of May 
7, 1911, was taken: 



Implements and machinery. 



Balers, chaff 

Binders 

Butter workers . 
Carts 



Churns 

Cleaners and shellers, corn. 

Crushers, corn 

Cultivators 

Cutters: 

Hay and straw 

Root 

Drillsi 

Engines: 

Gas 

Oil 

Steam 

Harrows 

Incubators: 

Ostrich 

Poultry 

Mills, wind 

Mowers 

Plows:2 

One-furrow 

Two-furrow 

Three-furrow 

Four-furrow 

Presses: 

Hay 

Wine 

Wool 

Pumps, wine 

Rakes 



Reapers 

Scrapers, dam 

Separators, cream. 

Stackers 

Strippers, corn 

Thrashers 

Wagons 

Winnowers 





Cape 




Orange 


Total. 


Prov- 


Natal. 


Free 




ince. 




State. 


i,ni 


341 


158 


243 


3,829 


3,156 


19 


382 


4,487 


2,380 


486 


866 


66, 457 


36,462 


3,855 


12,833 


33,804 


16, 117 


1,845 


8,824 


14,522 


6,285 


2.909 


2,751 


i,n7 


10 


'845 


103 


28,086 


8,621 


7,228 


5,391 


9,070 


6,028 


1,116 


1,142 


1,450 


907 


294 


152 


7,850 


1,763 


1,678 


2,122 


241 


154 


37 


29 


980 


513 


109 


168 


1,331 


599 


214 


231 


68, 125 


28, 755 


7,185 


14,009 


1,620 


1,495 


41 


29 


2,539 


913 


485 


580 


2,381 


1,227 


94 


914 


12, 597 


7,695 


1,559 


1,527 


211,927 


116,202 


35,299 


19,236 


70,259 


22,221 


4,248 


22,442 


7,428 


2,981 


1,107 


1,278 


178 


57 


51 


12 


3,558 


1,585 


493 


624 


970 


909 


11 


44 


1,395 


1,044 


58 


262 


1,020 


959 


5 


45 


6,661 


2,165 


1,320 


1,400 


4,659 


2,743 


281 


876 


15, 184 


8,575 


406 


1,742 


18,619 


7,667 


1,740 


6,490 


236 


109 


15 


62 


490 


254 


60 


106 


1,503 


697 


272 


247 


76,407 


34,685 


5,630 


22,482 


2,132 


1,110 


708 


184 



Trans- 
vaal. 



369 

272 

755 

13,307 

7,018 

2,577 

159 

6,846 

784 

97 

2,287 

21 

190 

287 
18,176 

55 

561 

146 

1,816 

41,190 

21,348 

2,062 

58 

856 

6 

31 

11 

1,776 

759 

4,461 

2,722 

50 

70 

287 

13, 610 

130 



1 Includes grain diills and corn drills and planters. Grain drills, even now, are not extensively usedin 
South Africa. It is doubtful whether there are 250 grain drills in the country at this time. 

2 Includes all types of plows, both disk and moldboard. 

According to the official customs returns, the value of agricultural 
implements and machinery imported by the Union of South Africa 
during the three years preceding the war fluctuated between $3,000,000 
and $3,500,000 per annum. Owing to the manner in which the 
(Itustoms returns are compiled, these figures do not include windmills, 
hay presses, pumps, binding twine, and several other lines, nor the 
agricultural machinery and implements imported by and for use in 
Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa. It is safe to state that the ag- 
gregate value of the imports of all classes of agricultural machinery 
and implements into South Africa in normal years is not far below 
$5,000,000. 

These figures speak rather favorably of the present importance 
of South Africa and of the hopeful outlook offered by the country 
114 



MAEKETS IN SOUTH AFKICA. 115 

as a market for the sale of farm machinery, especially when it is 
considered that 20 years ago the people were chiefly engaged in 
mineral and pastoral pursuits and that until recent years large areas 
were inhabited almost solely by black natives. The present position, 
when these facts are considered, can not be regarded as otherwise 
than satisfactory and justifying the continued effort and interest of 
American manufacturers. 

/Figures given elsewhere indicate that the United States sells more 
farm machinery to South Africa than any other country. It sup- 
plies from 45 to 50 per cent of the Union's requirements. American 
goods have been a factor of importance in that trade since the very 
early days. When farm machinery began to attract the attention of 
South African farmers, various American firms spent a great deal 
of money and displayed much enterprise in adapting their goods for 
that country. They sent their salesmen and experts there, who fre- 
quently covered the country in ox wagons with the object of demon- 
strating their machines in actual operation. This often involved 
considerable personal hardship and inconvenience to these men. They 
were as pioneers opening up a new land. To their ability and energy 
the manufacturers who have entered the market in recent years owe 
much, since their efforts broke down the prejudices of the conserva- 
tive Boer farmer against the use of modern machines for his farm 
work. It must be admitted that the hopes of the firms who took an 
interest in South African trade in the early days of the country's 
agricultural development have not been fulfilled in all cases. In 
various instances they seemed justified in expecting a more rapid and 
progressive development of the agricultural resources of South 
Africa, and as a consequence, a greater demand for farm machinery. 
Unfortunately, a series of severe droughts have retarded progress 
and arrested the vigorous activity with which many farmers set them- 
selves to the task of placing South Africa among the large primary 
producing countries of the world. This induced some of the con- 
cerns to withdraw, either partly or wholly, from active operations 
there in recent years. They have contented themselves with such 
business as their agents could secure unaided. The outbreak of the 
war counteracted in part the damage to their trade that otherwise 
would have followed the adoption of such a policy. There is every 
justification to recommend that these manufacturers continue their 
efforts. The time can not now be far distant when an increased de- 
mand will compensate for their past disappointments-. The two or 
three years following the conclusion of the war, at any rate, should 
determine the degree of expansion of which South Africa is capable 
along agricultural lines, and our manufacturers would do well to 
maintain the prestige and ascendancy that they enjoy at present 
until something more definite is known of South Africa's poten- 
tialities as a market for the sale of agricultural machinery. 

In regard to developments in the near future it may be opportune 
to remark that though South African importers have been rather 
conservative in their ordering since the w^ar began, a short time ago 
they began placing orders more freely. There is much reason to 
believe that at the termination of the war many orders of importance 
will be placed. On the whole, farmers have purchased sparingly 
since the war began. Many of them will assuredly renew their work- 
ing equipment after peace is restored. In addition, large numbers 



116 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



of retired soldiers, it is hoped, will be settled on the land. That 
there should then be a period of great activity in the sale of farm 
machinery seems unquestionable. Our manufacturers, from all indi- 
cations, will be justified in making adequate efforts to secure the 
orders that will be placed as a consequence of these conditions. 

PRESENT USE AND DEMAND. 

Gang plows, corn planters, lever harrows, one-horse corn culti- 
vators, mowers, rakes, and corn shellers are already to be seen on 
almost every farm. The virgin fields remaining to be exploited, as 
regards the introduction of these machines, are very limited. Much 
scope exists, however, for the sale of the more improved types of 
implements, such as two-row planters, arch cultivators, grain drills, 
disk harrows, gas engines, ensilage cutters, and various other ma- 
chines. While most farmers inclined to keep abreast with the times 
(especially those residing in closely settled districts) are rapidly 
beginning to use these machines, there still remain vast numbers who 
have not yet shown an inclination to do so. There is a substantial 
field for development in many districts for the lines indicated, and 
this fact should at least serve to keep up the normal demand for im- 
plements, when conditions become settled. As has been indicated 
elsewhere, the care given to farm machinery and implements in South 
Africa leaves much to be desired, and the few years of service ob- 
tained from them is utterly out of proportion to what might reason- 
ably be expected. It will probably be a long time before this impor- 
tant matter of farm management is properly understood. In the 
meantime this carelessness will have to be made good through the pur- 
chase of new machines. This constitutes a feature of no small impor- 
tance in a consideration of the future demand. 

STATISTICS OF IMPORTS. 

The total imports into the Union of South Africa of farm ma- 
chinery and implements and related lines during the years 1913, 1914, 
and 1915 are shown in the table below. In respect to these statistics 
it must be noted that it has not been possible to ascertain what 
machines are included under the headings of "implements" and 
"machinery." 



Articles. 



Agricultural implements: 

Dairy utensils 

Hoes and picks 

All other, not otherwise specified . . 

Agrictiltural machinery 

Binding twine 

Carriages and carts, and parts thereof i . 

Engines, traction 

Fencing wire 

Mills, wind 

Presses, wool and hay 

Pumps - 



1913 



$228,862 

44,363 

1,705,845 

1,018,130 

92, 964 

203,931 

84,313 

1,555,080 

388,205 

33, 734 

563, 837 



Total 5, 919, 264 



1914 



$105, 788 

30, 528 

1,637,631 

491, 769 

109,287 

134, 101 

26, 999 

1,042,808 

' 334, 625 

44,226 

587,601 



4,545,363 



1915 



$144,019 

19,446 

1,101,454 

366,681 
83,392 
86,079 
24,644 

395,977 

168,376 
55,138 

432, 140 



2,877,346 



1 The classification "Carriages and carts, and parts thereof" is, in the main, composed of parts for 
vehicles. It is very rarely that one sees at present any carriages and carts in South Africa that are -not 
the product of local factories. All fittings, castings, steels, and other parts, however, are imported, and 
these are included under this heading. 

2 Pumps for farm water supplies and irrigation, as well as those used in the mines, are included under 
the heading of "Pumps." At least 75 per cent of the value represents that of mining pumps. Pumps used 
for agricultural purposes are chiefly supplied by American manufacturers. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFEICA. 



117 



The imports of farm machinery and implements and related lines 
into the Union of South Africa/ by classes and countries of origin 
during the j^ears 1913, 1914, and 1915, are as follows : 



Countries and articles. 



UNITED STATES. 

Agricultural imi^lements: 

Dairy utensils 

Hoes and picks 

All other not otherwise specified 

Agricultural machinery , 

Binding twine 

Carriages and carts, and parts thereof 

Engines, traction 

Fencing wire 

Mills, wind 

Presses, wool and hay 

Pumps 



Total. 



UNITED KINGDOM. 1 

Agricultural implements: 

Dairy utensils 

Hoes and picks 

All other not otherwise specified 

Agricultural machinery 

Binding twine 

Carriages and carts, and parts thereof 

Engines, traction 

Fencing wire 

Mills, wind 

Presses, wool and hay 

Pump? 



Total. 



GEEMANY.2 

Agricultural implements: 

Dairy utensils 

Hoes and picks 

All other not otherwise specified 

Agricultural machinery 

Carriages and carts, and parts thereof 

Fencing wire 

Pumps 

Mills, wind 

Presses, wool and hay .' 



Total. 



CANADA. 3 

Agricultural implements: 

Dairy utensils 

All other not otherwise specified 

Agricultural machinery 

Binding twine 

Carriages and carts, and parts thereof 

Fencing wire 

Mills, wind 

Pumps 



Total. 



SWEDEN.* 

Agricultural implements: 

Dairy utensils 

All other not otherwise specified 

Agricultural machinery 

Pumps 



Total. 



1913 



1914 



$9,724 

467 

804,934 

382,911 

26,342 
130,690 

27,970 
721, 156 
296, 365 

23,062 
150,316 



2,573,937 



20,488 
42,319 

665, 202 

386,867 

6,570 

44,051 

56,294 

393, 739 

89,831 

9,845 

331,540 



2,046,746 



36,435 

1,577 

138, 029 

29,247 

1,056 

405,953 

63,313 

277 



675, 887 



1,917 

66,710 

203,502 

59, 965 

22,084 

3,368 



357,546 



120,782 

4,399 

764 

2,224 



128, 169 



$6,166 

297 

786,013 

185,277 

18,629 

95,636 

3,202 

456,925 

277,667 

29, 106 
140,564 



1915 



1,999,482 



13, 281 
29,433 

515,547 

185,287 

3,246 

25,535 

23,544 

278,607 
53,507 
13,923 

323, 155 



1,465,065 



11,091 

788 

120,981 

22,945 

1,075 

294,900 

107, 808 

1,543 

769 



561,900 



2,190 

199, 108 

92,410 

86,891 

7,777 
560 



1,767 



390,703 



46, 528 

3,276 

589 

258 



50,651 



$7, 617 

165 

501, 892 

219, 752 

47,322 

68,321 

2,793 

302, 706 

142,068 

44,300 
126, 159 



1,463,095. 



11, 110 

19,281 

445,440 

121,847 

3,431 

6,064 

21,851 

82,965 

24,882 

10,366 

234,468 



981,705 



384 
l6,"896 



9,095 
1,611 



21,986 



876 

116, 227 

21,500 

32,518 

3,587 

326 

1,426 



176,460 



100, 260 

6,263 

735 



107, 258 



1 The imports from the United Kingdom are very general in character. In a number of items manu- 
facturers of that country have a greater share of the trade than American manufacturers; among these 
are disk plows, disk harrows, large thrashing and shelling outfits, and chaff cutters. 

2 Imports from Germany, other than dairy utensils, hoes, and picks, are, in the main, two and three 
furrow plows. 

3 The imports from Canada are for lines like those supplied by American firms. It is quite possible 
that Canada's shipments of two and three furrow moldboard plows are nearly as large as those made by 
all American manufacturers combined. It is generally conceded that the most popular moldboard gang 
plow in South Africa is tbe product of a Canadian factory. 

* Sweden has most of the cream-separator trade. 



118 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



Countries and articles. 



BELGIUM. 1 

Agricultural implements: 

Dairy utensils 

All other not otherwise specified 

Agricultural machinery 

Carriages and carts, and parts thereof 

Fencing wire 

Pumps 



Total. 



AUSTRALIA.^ 

Agricultural implements: 

Dairy utensils 

All other not otherwise specified 

Agricultural machinery 

Carriages and carts, and parts thereof 

Mills, wind 

Pumps 



Total. 



Agricultural implements: 
Dairy utensils 



DENMARK. 



SWITZERLAND, 



Pumps . 



FRANCE. 3 

Agricultural implements: 

AH other not otherwise specified 

Agricultural machinery 

Pumps 



Total. 



Agricultm*al implements: 

Dairy utensils 

Pumps 



NORWAY. 



Total. 



NEW ZEALAND. 

Agricultural implements: 

Dairy utensils 

All other not otherwise specified 



Total. 



NETHERLANDS. 



Dairy utensils . 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY . 



Agricultural machinery. 



BRITISH INDIA. 



Binding twine. 



ALL OTHER COUNTRIES. 



Agricultural implements: 

Dairy utensils 

Hoes and picks 

All other not otherwise specified. . 

Agricultural machinery 

Binding twine 

Carriages and carts, and parts thereof. 

Engines, traction 

Fencing wire. 

Mills, wind 

Presses, wool and hay 

Pumps 



Total. 



1913. 



$22,254 


$10,458 


638 


175 


6,030 


214 


1,986 


156 


30,790 


11,792 


2,521 


341 



64,219 



3,173 
22,717 
8,166 
3,304 
1,713 
2,365 



41,438 



10,565 



1914. 



7,660 



1,445 
'i,'826" 



3,265 



1,085 
2,029 



3,114 



1,436 
1,085 



2,521 



954 



10 



49 



686 

633 
87 

760 
49 
74 
19 

827 
49 



3,233 



23,136 



2,419 
11,266 
4,336 
3,752 
1,445 
1,976 



25,194 



10,726 



8,632 



949 
'2,' 253 j 



3,202 



662 
847 



1,609 



1.251 
311 



1,562 



735 



662 



506 



281 

10 

5 

49 

15 

170 

253 

24 

463 

428 



1,698 



1 Belgium ships cream separators, a certain machine made in that country enjoying great favor. 
> Australia's only exports to South Africa are disk plows and stripper harvesters. 
8 Shipments from France consist of viticultural machinery. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 119 

PRICES. 

The prices given in this report, unless otherwise indicated, are the 
net retail prices prevailing in South Africa before the outbreak of 
the war and as quoted to farmers by coast importers f. o. b. cars at 
port of arrival. Discounts var3dng from 10 to 20 per cent for in- 
voices due in 90 days, and an additional discount of 5 per cent for 
cash paid in 30 days, are, however, given to country dealers by im- 
IDorters. In the interior centers, such as Johannesburg and Bloem- 
fontein, the retail prices are from 10 to 15 per cent higher, and in 
Rhodesia from 25 to 33:1 per cent higher. 

Before the war the approximate cost of importing farm machinery 
from England, Canada, and the United States, with all charges in- 
cluded, ranged from about 15 per cent of the manufacturers' prices 
for plows, harrows, mowers, and similar machines that pack com- 
pactly to 25 and up to 40 per cent for shellers, ensilage cutters, steam 
engines, binders, drills, thrashers, and other bulky machines. 

There is no fixed understanding between South African importers 
as to how to figure the retail prices of farm machinery on the basis 
of cost of importation. Generally speaking, however, the net retail 
prices of plows are usually 75 per cent higher than the net manu- 
facturer's price f. o. b. at port of embarkation. Binders, mowers, 
planters, and rakes are 100 per cent higher, and disk plows, disk 
harrows, cultivators, and gas engines about 125 per cent higher. 
vSteam engines, tractors, and other large machines are retailed at 
prices usually 75 per cent higher than the manufacturer's f. o. b. 
prices. 

Considering the expense of importing, together with the discounts 
given to dealers, and the capital invested in the business by import- 
ers of this class of goods, it can not be said that thej^ are making 
anything like big profits. If the business of most of the importers 
had been restricted to the sale of farm machinery, it would have 
been discovered in many cases that they were far from making ade- 
quate profits. With few exceptions, farm-machinery importers also 
sell other classes of machinery, hardw^are, metal products, and often 
furniture, automobiles, and general merchandise. This has enabled 
these firms to become established in the agricultural-machinery 
trade without having to depend on the sales of that department of 
their business for a suitable profit to keep them from suffering finan- 
cial embarrassment. The idea has always been that the time would 
surely come when the development of the country's agricultural 
resources, bringing in its wake a greater demand for farm machinery, 
would repay these firms for the meager profits made in the early 
days of the business. 

As a rule the prices quoted by American firms have been found satis- 
factory. As a matter of fact many South African importers would 
readily pay somewhat higher prices if the material and finish of 
the goods were improved to an extent commensurate with such an 
increase in price. Prices quoted by plow manufacturers when first 
introducing their goods have in several cases proved an exception 
to this rule, and the excessive prices they ask for theii^ plows have 
often proved an obstacle. This has occurred when prices have been 
based on the cost of production of a small number of machines. It 
is obvious that when this has l)een the case the importer has been 



120 AGEICULTTTEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

placed at a great disadvantage, since he has been compelled to ask 
a higher price for an unknown machine than that asked by his com- 
petitors for machines long and favorably known in the market. It 
will be necessary for any manufacturer who is desirous of entering 
the South African plow trade to forego much, if not all, of the profit 
that he would make in the normal course of business in order to in- 
troduce his plows in small quantities in that market. The manu- 
facturer should have sufficient confidence in the ability of his agent 
and in the quality and adaptability of his plows to be willing to 
wait for the time when a large demand for them is established to 
compensate him for the small profits made during the original period 
of introduction. 

TYPES OF IMPLEMENTS USED. 

In reviewing the various machines used in South Africa the types 
considered most popular and best adapted are described. It is evi- 
dent that on the whole the machines required must embody material 
of first quality, simplicity of design, and strong construction. With 
the exception of gang plows, both disks and moldboards, and maize 
planters, no definite standards were adopted until recently. The 
policy appears to have been to meet the varying ideas of the farmers 
and to furnish them what they wanted, with the result that many 
different machines were offered in the past. This condition has now 
been largely done away with. The tendency at present is to con- 
centrate all efforts on the sale of the farm machines that have here- 
tofore proved most successful, and these, on the whole, are very 
similar in character to those extensively used in the United States. 

PLOWS. 

Aside from the natural economic disadvantages in offering his 
wares, the small manufacturer has nearly as good an opportunity 
to do business in South Africa as the large manufacturer. With 
few exceptions South African importers do not concentrate their 
buying with any one firm, but purchase wherever they believe they 
can do so most advantageously. On the other hand, the probability 
of a business remaining small and stationary for many years or 
expanding rapidly in a short time often depends upon whether a 
line of farm machinery contains some of the leading tools used in 
South Africa. Since the leading farm machine in South Africa is 
the gang plow, it is obvious that a great advantage will be enjoyed 
by the manufacturer who is able to offer a line that includes an 
assortment of plows to cope with the varying demand and require- 
ments of the different sections of South Africa. Several cases have 
come under observation wherein the unwillingness of the manufac- 
turer to take up seriously the production of a suitable line of plows 
for that country has made almost unavailing the intense efforts put 
forth by him to create a demand for his other goods. It is especially 
recommended that manufacturers of a full line of machines for the 
cultivation of corn take these remarks into account, as thoir other- 
wise excellent chances to sell planters, cultivators, etc., are likely to 
be handicapped if their plows are not to the liking of the South 
African trade. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 121 

Plows are the only important exception to the rule that the farm 
machinery suitable for conditions in the United States is satisfactory, 
with minor changes, for the trade of the Union. A great variety of 
plows are seen in South Africa. In recent years, however, except 
in the southwestern districts, the plow trade has become fairly well 
standardized. The two-furrow walking moldboard plow is the type 
most widely used. Disk plows, on the other hand, are very popular 
in some parts of the country, chiefly in Rhodesia, where they are in 
greater demand than moldboard plows. 

Strength and simplicity of construction are the principal features 
to consider. American plows make a strong appeal in many respects, 
but on the whole the trade does not think that they are satisfactory 
in every way. Axles, beams, frames, bottoms, and other important 
parts are strong enough, but the complaint is often made that not 
enough care is exercised as regards the strength of some of the less 
important parts. Breakages therefore occur, and this has served to 
create the belief that, while American plows have some most excel- 
lent features, they are not as strong as is desirable for the severe soil 
conditions often encountered in South Africa. An improvement 
in this respect has been observed in recent years, but it can not be 
too strongly emphasized that American manufacturers should never 
risk putting on their plows (or, for that matter, on other machines 
for iSouth Africa) parts or castings regarding which there is any 
doubt as to whether they will stand the rough treatment and abuse 
that they will receive in the hands of the natives. 

The possibilities for the introduction of new lines of American 
plows in South Africa are not altogether encouraging. The number 
of firms interested in their importation is relatively small and each 
has now a more or less satisfactory line of plows for its trade. It 
is felt, however, that it may still be possible to introduce a few new 
lines if a satisfactory product is offered. The manufacturers in- 
tending to do so, however, must be prepared to display considerable 
interest and enterprise, for unless they can convince their prospective 
customers that they are thoroughly in earnest they will be given little 
encouragement. A large American firm, as a case in point, has built 
up, in the course of two years, a trade far more important than that 
of other American firms that have been in the South African trade 
for many years. The success of this firm is attributed to the fact 
that it undertook the task in such an aggressive and intelligent man- 
ner that it secured the wholehearted support of the intended agents. 
A competent designer was sent to South Africa with sample plows 
constructed along the lines considered satisfactory for that country. 
Exhaustive trials and tests of the plows were carried out, during 
which many changes and alterations were found necessary and made 
at once. In due course of time the machines were approved as being 
all that was desired, and they were then shipped back to the factory 
to serve as patterns for the manufacture of the plows ordered by 
the South African agents. The earnestness and energy of the Ameri- 
can concern promoted so much confidence that one of the largest 
orders for plows ever placed by a South African firm was sent to 
the manufacturer when the samples were shipped back to the factory. 
The value of this order probably compensated the manufacturer for 
all the expenses involved in thus adapting the machines to the con- 



122 



AGKIC ULTTJEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEKY. 



ditions of the country. Such a method of entering the market could 
be imitated with every possibility of success. This method certainly 
appears more practical than to attempt to perfect machines for the 
foreign trade in the manufacturer's own factory. For one thing, it 
prevents the loss of time. To test the machines thoroughly under 
the conditions that they will encounter day after day, making on 
the spot such changes as may be necessary, so as to ascertain whether 
they were justified or correctly made, is a plan that deserves the 
careful consideration of farm-machinery manufacturers interested 
in foreign trade. 

The census of 1911 gives the following number of plows as in use 
in South Africa at that time : 



Provinces. 


One-furrow. 


Two-furrow. 


Ttiree-f arrow. 


Four- 
furrow. 


! Total. 




Number. 


Per cent. 


Number. 


Per cent. 


Number. 


Per cent. 


Number. 




Cape 


54,295 

5,280 

56,627 


71 

85 
97 


19,834 

883 

1,504 


26 

14 

2 


2,642 

37 

302 


3 
1 

1 


35 


■ 
76, 796 


Bechuanaland 


6,200 


Transkei 


22 


58,465 






Total 


116,202 


84 


22,221 


14 


2,981 


2 


57 


141,461 






Natal 


31,739 
3,560 


86 
98 


4,163 

85 


11 
2 


1,099 
8 


3 


50 

1 


37,051 
3,654 


Zululand 








Total 


35,299 


92 


4,248 


6 


1,107 


2 


51 


40,705 




Transvaal 


41,190 


64 


21,348 


33 


2,062 


3 


58 


&1,65S 


Orange Free State — 


19,236 


45 


22, 442 


52 


1,278 


3 


12 


42,968 


Grand total 


211,927 


69 


70,259 


28 


7,428 


3 


178 


289,792 



These figures are not of much value to-day, as there has undoubt- 
edly been a gradual improvement in agricultural methods since they 
were obtained and consequently in the type and size of plows used. 
It is interesting to note, however, that, excluding the native terri- 
tories, 36 per cent of the plows were either two, three, or four furrow 
plows. If the kind of plows used by Europeans could be ascertained 
it would probably be found that not less than 75 per cent are other 
than single-furrow plows. 



MOLDBOARD WALKING GANG PLOWS, HEAVY TYPE. 

Almost without exception these plows are operated b}^ natives. In 
the existing order of things such labor is far from competent. The 
work is done with carelessness and indifference, and it is not infre- 
quent for a native to tip a plow over when taking it out of the 
ground or in turning a corner. This risk is augmented because 
large and unwieldy teams of oxen are used to operate the plows. It is 
quite apparent that, unless such parts as levers, quadrants, etc., are 
sufficiently strong, costly breakages will occur. Ten to sixteen oxen 
are ordinarily used to pull these plows, and the depth of plowing de- 
sired is seldom less than 8 inches. The plow, consequently, is sub- 
ject to considerable strain, again emphasizing the necessity for great 
strength. South African farmers, furthermore, often find it neces- 
sary to plow when the soil is hard and dry, and under such condi- 



MAEKETS 11^ SOUTH AFRICA. 123 

tions a plow must be exceedingly strong to withstand the severe strain 
resulting. 

The beams of these plows are made of very heavy steel. They 
are high arched and extra long, to assist in keeping the plows on the 
ground when plowing hard soils. This reduces the tendency of the 
plow to run on its nose. Strong bracing of the beams is very im- 
portant. Front, center, and rear braces should be provided. One- 
piece steel forgings are often used for these braces. The rear brace 
(which in most cases is made of heavy beam stock) is securely kept in 
place with two or three heavy bolts on each side. This brace must be 
curved in order to allow as much clearance as possible between the 
bottoms. It is important that the front end of the beams be strongly 
braced together and counterbraced. 

The two front wheels must be very strong and should be set well 
foi'ward off the point of the share, when the bottoms are on the 
ground, so as to let as much as possible of the rear weight of the 
plow rest or fall on the plow bottoms. This will aid in keeping them 
on the ground in heavy lands. Such construction also facilitates the 
proper balancing of the plow when oxen are used. These wheels are 
about 25 inches in diameter and have fairly broad and heavy rims. 
The very best construction must be provided, such as wide bearings, 
sand caps, and dust-proof grease magazine boxes. The furrow wheel 
is generally staggered — ^that is, it travels at an angle against the 
bottom of the furrow wall. This prevents side strain and facilitates 
making furrows of a uniform width. A suitable swivel rear wheel, 
for transport purposes, often forms part of the regular equipment 
of these plows. In some cases this is made of pressed steel and is of 
a small diameter and very simple construction. A more elaborate 
rear wheel, capable of up-and-down adjustment, is beginning to be 
provided, especially for the heavy plows of this type. 

The furrow and land wheels are mounted on independent axles but 
are both operated by a single hand lever that regulates the depth of 
plowing and raises the plows for turning and for transport. Both of 
these axles are of high carbon steel, IJ inches in diameter, and they 
often extend across to support the beams. The land axle in most cases 
is long enough to connect with both beams. The most popular plows 
of this type are so constructed that when the plows are on the ground 
the axles remain cranked forward. When the lifting lever is re- 
leased, and by means of the forward movement of the team, assisted 
by a heavy coil spring, the axles are cranked back and a power lift 
is thus obtained. The land-wheel axle must be extra long in order 
to provide a wide carriage to the plow, which will reduce the danger 
of overturning it when traveling on rough or plowed land. Both 
axles must be firmly held in position by large forged steel bearings. 

The levers are of one-half, and more often of five-eighths, inch steel, 
and so constructed that they remain low when the bottoms are out of 
the ground. This is to prevent their being bent or broken should the 
plow be overturned, which is by no means an uncommon occur- 
rence. They must also be firmly secured in place by substantial 
braces and supports. There are generally two levers on these plows. 
The main lever is to put the plows in and out of the ground, and this 
often has all-steel ratchet plungers. The auxiliar}- lever is pro- 
vided for the purpose of leveling the plows. Both levers should pivot 



124 AGRICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

in bearings of large diameter. The ratchets are of stamped steel 
secured by strong braces and have deep square notches. Proper at- 
tention should be given to this feature ; otherwise the levers will leave 
their places and unpleasant breakages and delays will be the result. 

A clevis shift, operated from the rear of the plow, must be pro- 
vided to control the work and enable the operator, by shifting the 
hitch, to regulate the width of the front furrow without turning the 
team. This clevis shift is sometimes operated as a lever, and two 
well-known plows use the handle of that lever to serve also as the 
guiding handle of the plow. Without such an arrangement it is neces- 
sary to equip the plow with either a single or double guiding handle, 
which is attached to the rear beam. In the past the construction of 
the clevis shift was both a cumbersome and complicated arrangement. 
The tendency in recent years has been to make it very simple and so 
constructed that it can be put on or off without disturbing other 
parts of the plow. While such an attitude is now rather the excep- 
tion than the rule, there are one or two firms that consider the clevis 
shift an extra attachment and make an additional charge for it. 

The question of moldboards for different classes of soil has not jet 
attracted much attention in South Africa. With very few excep- 
tions all plows are supplied with general-purpose moldboards for 
both turf and stubble plowing. Attempts have been made by im- 
porters to induce farmers to buy plows with other moldboards that, 
in their opinion, would more satisfactorily turn the soil under cer- 
tain conditions. Owing to the lack of interest shown by farmers, 
these attempts have been discontinued. They involved the carrying 
in stock of various types of plows and plow bottoms, the demand for 
which was both uncertain and slow. It can not be said that the 
South African farmer is very exacting in having the soil properly 
turned over and in the moldboards scouring properly or otherwise. 
His chief concern seems to be to see his land plowed. He also often 
takes off the rolling coulters, with the result that the furrow walls 
become badly broken up. The general construction of the plow bot- 
tom does not differ in any essential from that of the best types in use 
in the United States. Hardened soft-center steel moldboards, shares, 
and landsides are nearly always furnished. The moldboards have an 
extra piece of hard steel welded to the shin, giving them double 
strength and thickness where the greatest wear occurs. Slip heels 
for the rear landsides are usually provided. The frogs or plates are 
made of heavy forged or pressed steel. Some manufacturers fit 
crucible steel shares to their plows instead of soft-center steel shares. 
It is important that an understanding on this point be had between 
the manufacturer and the importer. Crucible steel shares, however, as 
well as heavy cast-iron shares, are largely supplied as repairs. Com- 
plaints have often been heard that American steel shares are too 
high in price, and this belief has frequently led farmers to buy other 
plows, the spare shares for which could be bought more cheaply. It 
would be a good point if manufacturers were to emphasize in their 
catalogues the advantages of the high-grade American steel shares 
over those made of cheaper materials. 

The draft rod is connected either with the front or the center brace. 
The idea is to get the draft, from well back and to carry it forward 
over the wheels, thereby reducing friction and the draft of the 
implement This draft rod passes through a guide attached to the 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 125 

clevis, the latter having ample vertical and lateral adjustments. The 
clevis must be made of strong materials and securely fitted to the 
plow in order to withstand the strain and the rough pulling of oxen. 
Since oxen are nearly always used in operating these plows, it is 
necessary to build the hitch with a wide range of adjustment toward 
the furrow side of the plow, inasmuch as oxen have a tendency 
to pull in that direction, whereas horses are more inclined to pull 
toward the land side. 

Plows of this description are used for' very heavy work. The most 
difficult soils of South Africa are plowed with them, sometimes to a 
depth of 12 inches, although seldom more than 10 inches and ordi- 
narily only 8 inches deep. The}^ are most widely used in the higher 
uplands of the Transvaal and in Rhodesia, where they are in evi- 
dence almost to the exclusion of all others. They are to be seen fre- 
quently, however, throughout South Africa, although plows some- 
what lighter in weight, but built along identical lines, are sold in 
greater numbers than the heavy type just described. 

This plow is supplied with 12 and 14 inch bottoms and weighs 
about 600 pounds. Plows with 12-inch bottoms sell for $72.50 and 
with 14-inch bottoms for $73.75. The third bottom attachment 
complete sells for $17.50 and weighs 125 pounds. 

EQUIPMENT OF HEAVY GANG PLOWS. 

, These plows are shipped complete with shifting clevis attachment 
and 15 -inch rolling coulters. No weed hooks, poles, or eveners are 
required. Rolling coulters will probably be considered as extras be- 
fore long, since most farmers take them off the plows and use them 
only when plowing heavy new ground. 

When crucible steel shares are fitted to the plows, it is customary 
to supply an extra set of shares of the same material. There is no 
precise rule as to supplying extra crucible shares or otherwise when 
the plows are equipped with soft-center steel shares. In the ma- 
jority of cases no extra shares are supplied under such circumstances. 
A feature of the plow trade, to which importers attach great impor- 
tance, is the interchangeability of shares. Manufacturers furnish- 
ing shares interchanging on the various gang and single-furrow 
plows that they ship to South Africa will find this much appreciated 
by the trade. South African importers have argued the advantages 
of this with their dealers, and in many cases it has influenced the 
latter in deciding what line of plows to handle. Chilled and plain 
cast-iron shares are sold very largely as extras. In some sections 
of South Africa shares with loose reversible points are very popular. 
Plows fitted with such shares will be largely bought solely on this 
account. Few American manufacturers supply these, but English 
manufacturers are often prepared to furnish them. 

Corn- dropper attachments are sold to some extent, and manufac- 
turers should furnish these when required. Rear wheels form part 
of the regular equipment in some cases, and in others they are 
charged for extra. The latter is more often the case. 

A third beam and bottom attachment for the 12-inch two-furrow 
plow is sold in increasing quantities, especially in the uplands of 
Transvaal Province and in Rhodesia. They are chiefly required in 
connection with the heavy style of plow. An extension hitch should 



126 AGRIOULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

be supplied when the tAvo-furrow plow is so constructed that this 
would be necessary for it to work properly when converted into a 
three-furrow plow. Provision must also be made to equip this at- 
tachment with a guiding handle whenever it should be impossible 
to use the liandle fitted to the rear beam of a two-furrow plow, when 
it is converted into a three-furrow plow. These plows are packed 
one in a box, completely knocked down. It is important that the 
measurement of the boxes be reduced to the utmost, since, on accoimt 
of the competition, the profits in the sale of plows of this type are 
very small. 

CANADIAN AND BRITISH COMPETITION. 

Canadian manufacturers are the most important competitors of 
American makers; they produce these plows along lines very similar 
to our own. Much credit is due them for their share in evolving this 
type of plow, which is the one most widely used in South Africa. 
They divide with American manufacturers the gratitude of South 
Africa's farming community for having perfected a plow that makes 
it possible to put under cultivation the fertile (though sun-baked) 
soil, with such crude auxiliaries as native oxen and rough natives. 
If figures were available it would probably be found that one Cana- 
dian firm alone sells nearly as many of these plows in South Africa 
as all American manufacturers combined. The manufacturer re- 
ferred to has been interested in this trade for many years, has always 
worked hand in hand with his agents, and has continually shown 
a keen disposition to keep his line always to the front. Canadian 
manufacturers appear to have succeeded in a greater degree than 
American manufacturers in reducing the complaints made on ac- 
count of parts that have proved to be of inadequate strength. 

Two English manufacturers produce excellent plows of this type, 
but their inability to meet the American and Canadian prices, 
because of their smaller output and different manufacturing methods, 
has proved a great handicap to the development of their trade in this 
line. In some districts, however (especially in the higher uplands, 
where the most severe plowing conditions are found and the strongest 
plows are in demand), these English firms do a very satisfactory 
business. 

In the past few years several American firms have made great 
progress in improving and perfecting these plows for South Africa. 
There is every indication that our trade in them at least will be main- 
tained in the future. 

MEDIUM AND LIGHT TTPES. 

By a medium- weight plow is meant a plow weighing 450 pounds 
and by a light plow one weighing 350 pounds. These plow^s, 
especially the former, have a very large sale in South Africa — per- 
haps larger than that of the heavy plow described in the preceding 
pages. These two plows are built, broadly speaking, along the lines 
of the heavy type, the chief difference being in their lighter weight. 
They are for conditions less severe and exacting than those obtain- 
ing where heavy plows are used. They are also largely bought by 
farmers who either possess a limited number of oxen or soils easier 



MARKETS IX SOUTH AFRICA. 127 

to plow or who do not care to pay the price of the heavier plow. 
While such is not always the case, for the sake of giving a broad idea 
of the demand it may be said that the heavy plow is chiefly sold in 
the uplands, the medium type in the midlands, and the light plow- 
in the lower lands. Of course, a great many farmers who are not situ- 
ated in the higher lands, but who believe in using good implements 
for their work, buy the heavier implement. 

The medium type can be accepted as being the standard type for 
the Orange Free State Province. It is supplied with two 12-inch 
bottoms at $60 and Avith two 14-inch bottoms at $61.50. The clevis 
shift device and the third bottom attachment are often required for 
this type of plow. 

The light plow is supplied with two 10-inch bottoms at $50 and 
with two 12-inch bottoms at $51.50. No clevis shift attachment is 
supplied, nor the third bottom attachment. This plow is preferred 
when it can be adjusted to cut either 1 inch wider or narrower than 
the size of the share. 

SINGLE-FURROW WHEELED MOLDBOARD PLOWS. 

In some parts of South Africa there are sold a few single-furrow 
wheeled plows constructed along the lines of the gang plows de- 
scribed in the preceding pages. These liave no rear wheel, and the 
draft is direct from the point of the beam. A rear handle is sup- 
plied. These are sold in 12, 14, and 16 inches, weighing 300, 350, 
arid 400 pounds, and selling at $40, $42.50^ and $4Y.50, respectively. 
In many respects the construction of the heavy gang plow forms 
the basis for that of this single-furrow plow. Only a few dealers 
sell such a plow, and in general it is not necessary for a manu- 
facturer to build it to provide a full line of plows for the South 
African market. 

OTHER WALKING GANG PLOWS. 

For the trade in a few isolated districts several firms stock gang 
plows that differ in several respects from those heretofore described. 
Perhaps the plow most widely sold in this connection is a very heavy- 
two and three furrow plow especially constructed to break virgin 
soil. The two-furrow plow is adjustable to cut from 16 to 24 
inches, and the three-furrow plow from 24 to 36 inches. These 
weigh 675 pounds and 850 pounds, and sell for $95 and $105, respec- 
tively. They are supplied with either 8, 9, or 10 inch shares and 
with a long turning breaking moldboard — different, however, from 
the American type, owing to the narrow cut of the share. Plows 
of this description are almost entirely supplied by Canadian, Austra- 
lian, and English manufacturers. The trade does not seem important 
enough to warrant their manufacture b}^ American makers at the 
present time. 

DISK PLOWS. 

It is widely believed that South Africa's disk-plow trade equals 
in volume that in moldboard gang plows. If Khodesia is included, 
it is not improbable that such is the case. It is to be regretted, in 
view of this, that American manufacturers have, relatively, a very 



128 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



small share of that business. British manufacturers for many years 
have enjoyed practically a monopoly in the sale of disk plows, and 
it is only in recent times that adequate efforts have been made by 
American manufacturers to sell these in greater numbers. In nor- 
mal years South Africa imports from 3,000 to 5,000 disk plows. 
Of these one English firm is said to supply about 75 per cent. The 
plow in question (see fig. 1) is chiefly preferred on account of its 
very strong and rigid construction. Otherwise it does not seem to 
possess any extraordinary features of superiority over those made 
by American manufacturers. The frame of that plow is particu- 
larly strong, and that feature in itself is largely responsible for the 
excellent reputation it enjoys. In addition to the beam or frame 
supporting the disk standards, this plow has another heavy beam 
or frame running, in a parallel position, from the hitch bar to about 
the center of the plow, just behind the center disk in the three- 




FiG. 1. — Three-furrow disk plow, made in England. 

furrow plow. In other words, the frame may be said to be composed 
of these two beams, which are strongly braced and run parallel with 
each other as far back as the furrow-wheel axle. A very rigid and 
strong frame construction is thus obtained, which is much liked by 
the South African farmer. 

At least two American manufacturers have recently produced a 
plow built on lines very similar to the English plow mentioned, and 
their enterprise in supplying exactly the type of disk plow that 
has proved satisfactory is certain to be adequately rewarded. 

It should not be difficult for American manufacturers to increase 
their sales of disk plows in South Africa. Generally speaking, the 
only fault found with their goods is that they are not quite as rigid, 
strong, and substantially constructed as the requirements of the 
market make necessary. In most cases an increase of from 5 to 
10 per cent in the weight and strength of some of the parts is all 
that is necessary. The utmost care should be taken to insure that 
all parts are sufficiently strong and to brace the frame so that the 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 129 

utmost rigidity is maintained at all tim-es. Some American disk 
plows already enjoy an excellent reputation because of their light- 
ness of draft. Our manufacturers have the advantage of large out- 
puts and standardized manufacturing methods that enable them to 
sell their product at prices more attractive than those quoted by 
English firms. This condition is felt acutely by importers of Eng- 
lish goods, since they have to be contented with a very small margin 
of profit. They obtain a somewhat higher price for English disk 
plows, but the difference is not sufficient to compensate them for the 
higher prices that they in turn must pay to the manufacturers. 
Another factor in favor of the United States at this time is that 
the English firm doing the largest disk-plow business in South 
Africa has decided, in certain sections of the country, to ignore the 
regular importing organization in order to sell direct to the more 
important country dealers. Since the retail trade of South Africa 
is strongly controlled by the large coast importers, it is doubtful 
whether that maker will be able to have as many dealers selling his 
goods as he had when the business was handled through the coast 
importers. Another favdrable factor is that a dealer must of neces- 
sity have a complete line of implements, including corn planters, for 
his trade. While English manufacturers have proved able to sup- 
ply satisfactory disk and moldboard plows, disk harrows, and several 
other machines, they have not had the same success with maize 
planters and cultivators, so much in demand every w^here in South 
Africa. Such being the case, the coast importer is in an excellent 
position to sell American disk plows, because of the influence he 
can exercise when controlling the sale of a well-known American 
planter. 

The majority of American disk plows sold in South Africa are 
built along the lines of those that are largely used iit the Southern 
States and on the Pacific coast and are also supplied to the foreign 
trade. While, to some extent, certain American manufacturers have 
taken pains to supply plows capable of successful operation in a 
country that, like South Africa, is compelled to use native labor and 
oxen (plows that, in the hands of more intelligent operators, would 
be sufficiently strong), a good deal of effort still appears necessar}^ to 
produce the substantial type of disk plow that will enable them to 
secure as satisfactory a share of the disk-plow trade of South Africa 
as that which they enjoy in other classes of farm machinery. 

The demand is chiefly for two and three furrow disk plows weigh- 
ing approximatel}^ 1,075 and 1,150 pounds, respectively. There is 
also a good demand for lighter disk plows. The principal feature 
(laiming the farmer's preference, when he is purchasing a disk plow, 
is a very strong and rigid frame that will keep the plow solidly to- 
gether. Light draft is also an important consideration, this feature 
of the American plows being highly esteemed. Other desirable fea- 
tures are quick adjustment of the disks to meet different soil con- 
ditions and strong wheels and axles with dust-proof and grease-tight 
arrangements. Above all, hoAvever, South African farmers look for 
a plow that can be successfully used in new and rough lands, and the 
parts of which are so uniformly strong that breakages under these 
conditions will be reduced to a minimum. 

1276°— 17— No. 146 9 



130 AGRICULTTJEAL IMPLEMEl^TS AND MACHINEEY. 

Throughout South Africa two and three furrow plows are most 
often used, the three-furrow leading all others. There are un- 
doubtedly more four-disk ploATS sold than single-furrow plows, this 
being especially true in Rhodesia, where probabh^ 80 per cent of all 
plows used are disk plows and the great majority of these are four- 
disk plows. Twenty-four inch disks are the standard equipment; 
26-inch disks are rarely used. 

The trade in disk plows of the lighter type is very small, indeed. 
The two-disk plow weighs 650 pounds and sells at $75. The three- 
disk weighs 775 pounds and sells at $90. 

The medium-weight disk plow shares with the heavier type the 
smount of business done. The two-disk plow in this class weighs 
900 to 975 pounds and sells at $75 to $90. The three-disk plow'weio:hs 
1,000 to 1,100 pounds and sells at $92.50 to $105. The four-disk plW 
weighs 1,150 to 1,225 pounds and sells at $125. 

The heavier type of disk plow^, which is much in demand, is sold 
with two disks, weighing 1,075 to 1,125 pounds and selling at $100; 
three disks, weighing 1,150 to 1,300 pounds and selling at $115 to 
$125 ; four disks, w^eighing 1,400 pounds and selling at $140. 

EEVEKSIBLE DISK PLOWS, 

There are a number of reversible disk plows sold in South Africa, 
chiefly in the sugar-growling districts of Natal and in the south- 
western part of Cape Province, where the land is often hilly. 
Throughout South Africa a few disk plows of this type are seen noAv 
and then. These plows are identical with those produced by Ameri- 
can manufacturers. They weigh 475 to 600 pounds and sell '^t 
$55 to $75. 

SULKr PLOWS. 

The only sulky plow sold in South Africa (and this to a small 
extent) is a single-furrow frameless moldboard plow with 16-inch 
bottoms. This plow is identical with that which is largely used in 
California and Texas and which is also the most popular sulky plow 
used in Argentina. It weighs 400 to 450 pounds and retails at $50. 
Some firms stock and import these plows wdthout either seat or rea=^ 
wheel. 

SINGLE-FURROAV WALKING PLOWS. 

The trade in these plows is not as important as many may be led 
to suppose, in view" of the backward conditions prevailing for many 
years in South African farming. To a very great extent their sale is 
confined to the native districts and for orchard, vineyard, and sugar- 
cane cultivation. In some cases, however, the soil is so hard and 
difficult to handle that single-furrow plows are used because of the 
large teams that w^ould be required to operate larger plows. Out- 
side of the native trade and for sugar-cane cultivation, the demand is 
for the better class of steel single-furrow plows. The cost of one of 
these, however, when equipped with a forecarriage of the elaborate 
type so often used in South Africa, closely approaches that of a 
wheeled gang plow, and to this fact must be attributed, in a measure, 
the small demand for walking plows. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 131 

The natives use almost exclusively a single- furrow moldboard ploAV, 
which, as though by an unwritten law, must be sold at a price not 
exceeding $12.50, equipped with gauge wheel. Wood-beam-and- 
handle plows with cast-iron bottoms were largely sold to natives 
until a few^ years ago. The present demand is for all steel or iron 
plows that can be purchased at the price mentioned. The native 
will prefer a steel-beam plow, even though it may cut a narrower 
furrow, to a wood-beam plow selling at the same price. 

A light pony plow with wood beam and handles, steel standard, 
solid steel general-purpose moldboard, share, and landside, to cut 8 
inches wide, is largely sold. This weighs 50 pounds and retails at 
$7.50. It is extensively used for light work such as sugar-cane and 
vineyard cultivation. A good many of these are to be seen in the 
native districts, and they are also used by some of the less progressive 
white farmers. Many of them are sold to Rhodesian natives. They 
are supplied with gauge wheels, and six complete plows are shipped 
in a box. 

Another type, which is rapidly taking the place of the wood- 
beam pony plow, is a light one or two horse plow with steel beam 
and either wood or steel handles. This is used by small farmers and 
by a good many natives. It is supplied with gauge wheel and sold 
mostly in 7, 8, and 9 inch sizes, weighing 55, 65, and 75 pounds, 
respectively, and retailing at $8.50, $10.50, and $11.50. Some im- 
porters supply a somewhat heavier plow, for which $1.50 more is 
paid. Six complete plows are packed in a box. 

For the better trade a medium-weight single-furrow plow, for two 
or three horses, with steel beam and with either steel or wood handles, 
is largely sold. It is used for general work, including breaking 
virgin soil and weedy and thrashy lands. The gauge wheel is set 
well forward in the beam to make the plow run steadily on rough and 
uneven ground. The beam is preferred somewhat longer than usual 
and hig-h arched to allow ample clearance. A few 16 and 18 inch 
plows of this type are sold, but the trade is mostly in the 10, 12, and 
14 inch sizes. The bottoms generally sold with these plows are of the 
general-purpose t3^pe, with soft-center steel moldboard and crucible- 
steel share and landside. In some cases these plows are equipped 
with soft-center steel shares, for which an extra price is paid. They 
are always supplied with gauge wheel. The 10-inch size weighs 115 
pounds, and sells at $15.50, the 12-inch size weighs 130 pounds, and 
sells at $18, and the 14-inch size weighs 150 pounds, and sells at 
$23.50. 

The most expensive and substantially constructed single- furrow 
walking plow sold in South Africa is a 14-inch plow for lands in a 
very rough state and only partly cleared of roots and stumps. 
Eight to 12 oxen are required for it. It is also largely used for very 
hard ground, deep plowing, and especially for the heavy gumbo 
soils often found in small pockets in many parts of South Africa. 
This plow is always equipped with a loose or gallows forecarriage 
of a heavier construction than that used for the lighter walking 
plows. Extra heavy steel beams and handles, heavy knife coulter, 
soft-center steel moldboard, with a steel moldboard extension, and 
soft- center shares and landsides are supplied with it. The plows 
for this work furnished by English manufacturers have a heavy iron 
beam instead of the steel beam. This plow weighs, complete with 



132 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

the equipment indicated, 325 pounds, and it sells for $35 to $40. 
There is a limited sale for a somewhat lighter plow, weighing 250 
pounds and selling at $30. Both these plows are equipped with steel 
runners attached to the end of the left handle, to assist in their 
transportation when the plow is turned on its side. 

HILLSIDE PLOWS. 

There is quite a fair demand for walking hillside plows. One of 
these is a light-weight plow equipped with wood beam and handle, 
solid steel share and moldboard. Ordinarily no steering attachment 
is provided, but it always has a foot-locking device. Gauge wheels 
are part of the regular equipment. Two sizes are generally im- 
ported, either 9 to 10 inches, or 11 to 12 inches, weighing, respec- 
tively, 90 and 120 pounds, and selling at $8.50 and $12.50. 

A somewhat heavier hillside plow is also in demand. It has a steel 
split beam and steel or wood handles, and is equipped with a steer- 
ing device to adjust the beam to the line of draft in order to regulate 
the width of the furrow. It is equipped with either steel or cast 
shares, steel moldboard and gauge wheel. Four or 6 of these plows 
are packed in a box for shipment. The 12-inch size weighs 175 
pounds and retails for $20, and the 14-inch size weighs 185 pounds 
and sells for $21.50. 

BREAKING PLOWS. 

A few prairie breaking plows are sold. These have a strong wood 
beam, reinforced with steel straps, solid steel share, moldboard and 
landside, rolling coulter, and gauge wheel. They are preferred when 
equipped with a steel draft rod and dial clevis. The 12-inch size 
weighs 125 pounds and sells at $21.50, and the 14-inch size weighs 
150 pounds and sells at $23. The trade in these is unimportant and 
English and American manufacturers divide it among themselves. 

EIDGING AND MIDDLE-BREAKER PLOWS. 

Ridging and middle-breaking plows are sold to a limited extent 
in Natal and where irrigation is practiced. One of the types sold 
has wood beam and handles and weighs T5 pounds. With gauge 
wheel it sells for $8. Another type in demand is very much heavier 
and stronger, being built with an iron beam and wood handles and 
weighing 175 pounds. This plow is intended for ridges up to 28 
inches wide, at the top and 10 inches deep. With gauge wheel it sells 
at $25. Another heavy middle-breaker plow entirely constructed of 
iron and steel is sold in fair numbers. It has a moldboard ad- 
justable for ridges 20 to 30 inches wide at the top and it is fitted 
with either single or double gauge wheels. The ridging bottom can 
be removed and a set of potato diggers put in its place. Without 
the potato-digger attachment it weighs 150 pounds and sells at $25. 

EQUIPMENT or WALKING PLOWS. 

In some cases gauge wheels are sold as extras, and for this reason 
it is preferable that manufacturers quote separate prices for plows 
and for gauge wheels. Single-stem gauge wheels are rapidly being 
discarded for those with a double stem. 



MARKETS IIT SOUTH AFRICA. 133 

On the better types of walking plows a substantially constructed 
steel runner or steel gliding shoe is attached to the upper outside end 
of the left handle to assist in the transportation of the plow when 
it is turned on its side. 

Coulters are generally sold as extras, the knife coulter at $1.75 
and the rolling coulter at $4 to $5. 

The land sides of all single-furrow plows are equipped with a re- 
movable slip heel. 

With very few exceptions, the moldboards for all types of plows 
sold in South Africa are of the general-purpose type, for turf and 
stubble work. 

Soft-center steel, crucible steel, chilled cast iron, and plain cast 
shares are largely supplied as extras for walking plows. 

It is almost the universal rule to ship six complete plows in a box 
to South Africa. 

rORECARRlAGE FOR WALKING PLOWS. 

A large number of walking plows are sold with either a rigid or 
loose forecarriage. This is necessary on account of the rough nature 
of the ground and because of the unsatisfactory plowing otherwise 
done by natives. The forecarriag.e makes the plow steadier and 
easier to handle, and also assists in making furrows of uniform depth 
and Avidth. 

The rigid type of forecarriage consists of two upright square steel 
posts fastened to a crossbar or axle on which the plow beam either 
rests or hangs. To the lower end of these posts the wheels are at- 
tached. The land wheel is movable up and down to regulate the 
depth of plowing. This forecarriage should be constructed to per- 
mit setting the plow for a depth of 10 inches. The most recent types 
of forecarriages can be changed from rigid to loose by means of a 
latch operated by a string that is held on the handle brace. When 
the string is pulled the latch is released and the plow beam becomes 
loose, which facilitates taking the bottom out of the ground and the 
transportation of the plow. These forecarriages weigh 45 to 50 
pounds and sell at $5 to $6. 

The gallows or loose forecarriage is somewhat more substantially 
constructed than that of the rigid type. In this case a positive ar- 
rangement to allow the beam to swivel independently of the fore- 
carriage axje is part of its construction, so that the plow may be 
easily turned on its left side. In general the construction is similar 
to that of the rigid forecarriage, with the advantage, however, that 
greater flexibility is obtained. It weighs 70 to 75 pounds and sells 
at $7.50 to $10. Since the rigid type of forecarriage has been de- 
signed so that it can be easily changed into a loose forecarriage, the 
necessity for providing this type has diminished. At any rate, its 
use is practically confined to the heavy walking plow for breaking 
gumbo and hard soils. 

CHILLED WALKING PLOWS. 

The demand for chilled plows is very small and almost entirely 
confined to the native territories and the southwestern districts of 
Cape Province. Comparing Rhodesia with the Union, it may be said 
that chilled plows are used in the former country where steel plows 



134 



AGKICULTTJKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEKY. 



would be used in the latter. The most popular chilled plows in 
South Africa can be classified under three headings, as follows: 

Light type with wood or steel beam, wood handles, and gauge 
wheel; 9-inch cut weighs 80 pounds and sells at $7.50, 10-inch cut 
weighs 90 pounds and sells at $9.50. 

One-horse light plow for vineyard work, with adjustable wood 
beam, wood handles, and gauge wheel ; 9-inch cut weighs 70 pounds 
and sells at $9, 10-inch cut weighs 80 pounds and sells at $10. 

Two-horse plow, with wood or steel beam, wood handles, gauge 
wheel, cutter share or slip nose share ; 8-inch weighs 110 pounds and 
sells at $12.50, 9-inch weighs 130 pounds and sells at $13, 10-inch 
weighs 140 pounds and sells at $15, 12-inch weighs 170 pounds and 
sells at $16. Fore-carriages, rolling coulters, and standing coulters 
are often required for these plows. 

ENGINE PLOWS. 

Plows for gas and steam tractors are not regularly stocked by 
South African firms. Those so far sold for this work are about 
equally divided between disk and moldboard plows. 

GERMAN PLOW TRADE. 

There appears to be much misunderstanding concerning the im- 
portance of the trade done by German plow manufacturers in South 




Pig 2. — Double-furrow plow, made in Germany. 

Africa, especially in the southwestern part of Cape Province, where 
their goods are most often seen. According to the official customs re- 
turns of the Union, the value of all agricultural implements, other 
than dairy utensils, hoes, and picks, imported from Germany during 
1913 amounted to $113,029. As these figures indicate, the German 
trade has not been very large. 

The most popular German plow sold in South Africa is a two- 
furrow plow with a loose fore-carriage, fitted with two 10-inch bot- 
toms and equipped with standing knife cutters and steel handles 
(see fig. 2) . This plow is light in weight but is built entirely of steel. 
The pull is made with a double chain, the ends of which are hooked 
to either side of the double frame to which the bottom standards are 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



135 



attached. The chain is fitted with a turnbuckle to shorten or lengthen 
it in order to adapt the plow for uneven ground. The standards sup- 
porting both bottoms are attached to the long beams, which extend 
from the front of the plow to the handles in one single piece, making 
any levers unnecessary. This places this particular type of plow 
more in the category of single-furrow plows than in that of gang 
plows. It is becoming so popular that there are nearly half a dozen 
imitations of it sold in South Africa. As it is often considered nec- 
essary to give an importer a full plow line, it would seem that a fair 
business could be done by a manufacturer who undertook to build 
something along that line and job them out, under different trade 
names, to other American manufacturers interested in South African 
trade (just as some of our manufacturers handle chilled plows made 
by other firms). These plows weigh 230 to 260 pounds and retail at 
$24 to $28. They are shipped packed three in a box. The standards 




Fig. 3. — Double-furrow walking plow, made in Germany. 

to which the bottoms are attached are made of cast steel; the share 
is made of crucible steel and the moldboard of soft-center steel. 
Solid steel shares for these plows retail for $0.75. The utmost depth 
at which these plows are expected to plow is 8 inches, but ordinarily 
they are used to plow about 4 inches deep. 

Another plow of German origin largely sold in South Africa is 
a two-furrow wheeled gang plow made of steel throughout, with 
forged steel standards, soft-center steel moldboard, and crucible 
steel shares (see fig. 3). The front wheels work on a common crank 
axle moving together backward or forward by the operation of a 
lever. The chief feature of this plow is its small number of wearing 
parts. It weighs 250 to 280 pounds and retails for $30. It is built to 
cut either 20 or 24 inches at a maximum depth of 9 inches on easy 
soil. Two plows are packed in a box. 

For light work, to plow from IJ to 6 inches, chiefly to work fallow 
lands and to plow up broadcast-sown lands, a three-furrow plow with 



136 



AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



9-inch bottoms, weighing 340 pounds and retailing at $40, is largely 
used in the southwestern part of Cape Province (see fig. 4). 

It is understood that one or two American firms have lately under- 
taken the manufacture of plows along lines similar to those of the 
plows supplied by Germany heretofore. Since the farmers in the 
Cape Town territory have long been accustomed to that type of plow, 
the demand will undoubtedly continue as long as they can be pur- 
chased. On the other hand, owing to the inability of German manu- 
facturers to supply their agents in that country, making it difficult 
for farmers to procure the ploAvs since the war started, there is 
afforded at present an exceptional opportunity to introduce light 
gang plows made by American manufacturers that will correspond 
to the German plow in price, weight, and width and depth of plow- 
ing performed. It must be noted that the prices given above were 
those prevailing before the war. South African farmers will un- 
doubtedly understand that agricultural implements offered at this 




Fig. 4. — Three-furrow fallowing plow, made in Germany. 

time are selling for higher prices because of the present greater cost 
of material. 

It is believed that the plows of German origin mentioned above 
are largely used in several European countries. If American manu- 
facturers planning to produce them for South Africa will exploit 
the European trade as well, the construction of such plows may yet 
result in an attractive and profitable business. 

HARROWS. 

According to the census of 1911, the number of harrows of all 
kinds then in use in the Union of South Africa was 68,125. Few of 
these were disk harrows. Even to-day the great majority of har- 
rows seen in South Africa are tooth harrows, and these of a some- 
what inferior type. 

DISK HARROWS. 

Disk harrows are oftener seen in Transvaal and Natal Provinces 
than elsewhere in South Africa. The demand is rapidly increasing, 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



137 



and in a few years they will undoubtedly be used by the majority of 
farmers in these two Provinces. In the eastern districts of Orange 
Free State disk harrows are also frequently seen. In the south- 
western districts of Cape Province it is rather the exception than the 
rule to find them, whereas the demand in the eastern districts of that 
Province is rapidly growing. While exact information is unobtain- 
able, various estimates place the number of disk harrows sold in 
South Africa at 1,000 per annum. 

American manufacturers do not have the same proportionate 
share of the disk-harrow business that they have as regards other 
machines. It is generally conceded that English manufacturers, 
their principal competitors, sell a much greater number of these. The 
English disk harrows (see fig. 5) are heavier and stronger, and these 




Fig, 5. — English disk harrow. 

qualities are necessary for the work to be done in South Africa. 
The transport truck of these machines is self-contained in the har- 
row. Its wheels are built on a wide crank axle and the truck can 
easily be put upon the harrow, thus helping to keep the disks on the 
ground when the machine is at work. They take the place, so to 
speak, of the weight boxes. This truck is easilj^ released for trans- 
port purposes. The disk gangs are so constructed that they pivot 
in the center and can be turned around to a position parallel with 
the team, in which manner they rest upon the transport wheel axles. 
The harrow, consequently, can be folded for transportation. Two 
American manufacturers have lately built disk harrows very similar 
in design. This will undoubtedly cause an increase in our disk-har- 
row trade in South Africa. 

Spading harrows, built on a frame like that of the disk harrow, 
are sold by a few firms. Eight-foot cut is the only size sold, weigh- 
ing 650 pounds and retailing at $60. 



138 AGKICULTUEAL IMPLEMENT'S AND MACHINERY. 

ALFALFA HARROWS AND CULTIVATORS. 

Quite a number of alfalfa harrows and. cultivators have been sold 
in South Africa in the past. The chief type in demand was that 
which American disk-harrow manufacturers make, using a disk- 
harrow frame — with spikes, however, instead of disks. Very few of 
these are now sold. The depression of the feather market partly 
accounts for this, although the chief reason why this machine is 
going out of favor is that the teeth or spikes rapidly lose their sharp 
points when cultivating alfalfa in the hard soils often encountered 
in South Africa. This causes the dull spikes to push or press the 
alfalfa heads into the ground, thus destroying the vitality of the 
plants and preventing their further growth. 

Weight boxes and transport trucks are part of the regular equip- 
ment. Tongue trucks are sold as extras for nearly every ' machine. 
Broadcast alfalfa seeders are used in certain districts. The demand 
is chiefly for 6-foot harrows, although 4 and 8 foot machines are 
also sold. The 4-foot harrow has eight wheels, weighs 600 pounds, 
and sells at $65. The 6-foot harrow has 12 wheels, weighs 650 
pounds, and sells at $75. The 8-foot has 16 wheels, weighs 925 
pounds, and sells at $95. 

These disk harrows are made in two sizes. The 8-foot has either 
cut-awa}^ or plain disks, 18 inches in diameter, weighs 750 pounds, 
and sells at $85, including transport and tongue trucks. The 10- 
foot harrow weighs 850 pounds and sells at $100. When cut-away or 
20-inch disks are supplied an extra charge is made. This type of 
disk harrow has become very popular in South Africa, as it has 
proved to do very good work when heavy soil conditions prevail. 
American manufacturers desiring a share of this trade will do well to 
follow closely its general construction. A Canadian firm has made 
an exact imitation of it, to the extent that the South African agents 
use electrotypes of the original machine in advertising the imitation. 

Owing to the growing use of disk harrows, there is an increasing 
demand for the lighter machines made in the United States. These 
are equipped with plain disks, but cut-away disks are often supplied 
at the same price. Eighteen-inch disks are the most widely used, 20- 
inch disks are supplied to some extent, and 16-inch disks are rarely 
met with. The majority of harrows are equipped with tongue and 
transport trucks, for which $10 and $7.50 additional are charged. 
For stub poles $1 extra is charged. In some districts a center shovel 
attachment to work between the two disk gangs is required, and $3.50 
extra is charged for it. Weight boxes are part of the regular equip- 
ment. Strong axles, frames, and scrapers are necessary features. 
Eight and 9-foot disk harrows are in greatest demand. The most 
popular harrow of this type weighs 575 pounds and 625 pounds and 
retails at $60 and $70, including transport and tongue trucks. Six- 
foot disk harrows weighing 500 pounds and selling at $15 are sold 
to some extent. Ten-foot disk harrows are seldom seen. Broadcast- 
seeder attachments are wanted in certain districts, but on the whole 
the demand for these is small. 

In proportion to the number of disk harrows sold there is quite a 
demand for tandem attachments for these. They are equipped in 
about equal numbers with either plain or cut-away disks. These 
attachments are sold chiefly for the 6 and 8 foot harrows. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 139 

In Xatal some light disk harroAYs to cultivate between wattle trees 
and for other light work are sold. These are furnished without seat 
and with either cut-away or plain disks, at the same price. Most in 
demand are the 4-foot cut, with 20-inch disk, weighing 340 pounds, 
and selling for $37.50, and the 5-foot cut, weighing 375 pounds, and 
selling for $40. 

For orchard, vineyard, and general field cultivation, a few reversi- 
ble disk harrows are sold. These are supplied with seat and are ad- 
justable for in-throw and out-throw cultivation. Harrows with ten 
16-inch disks, weighing 425 pounds, and selling for $40 are those* 
mostly sold. 

Alfalfa is a popular crop in South Africa and farmers think much 
of it. Often considerable expenses are incurred to establish alfalfa 
under irrigation. Efficient implements for alfalfa cultivation are 
certain ahvays to meet with a ready demand. Most South African 
farmers feel that as yet a machine has not been produced that will 
cultivate alfalfa in a thoroughly effective manner. Our manufac- 
turers should bring to the attention of South African farmers and 
importers any new machines they may produce for this work. Disk 
harrows are extensively used at present to cultivate alfalfa. 

SPIKE-TOOTH HARROWS. 

A great many different spike harrows are sold in South Africa. 
This is an implement that is found on every farm. Diamond and 
zigzag disk harrows, without levers, seem to be the most popular. 
There are, however, a good number of lever harrows sold. A cheap 
but strong implement is required. 

Two, three, and four section zigzag and diamond harrows, weigh- 
ing 120, 150, and 250 pounds and selling for $15, $18.50, and $25, 
respectively, are the most popular. The competition of English 
and German firms has been very keen. Sweden has recently supplied 
an increasing number of these harrows. 

Two and three section lever harrows, almost equally divided be- 
tween the U-bar and the " pipe "-bar types, weighing 270 and 350 
pounds and selling at $23 and $30, respectively, are sold in increasing 
numbers. 

SPRING-TOOTH LEVER HARROWS. 

For the cultivation of alfalfa and orchards and for general field 
work, spring-tooth lever harrows are increasing in popularity. 
Frame of angle steel with good rear clearance, adjustable teeth that 
can be set by the levers at different angles, and reversible points are 
features found in the most popular spring-tooth harrows sold. The 
two-section harrow with 23 teeth, weighing 275 pounds, sells at $30. 
Transport attachments are often required. These add $7 to the 
price. 

ANTICLOG WEEDERS. 

Auticlog weeders are sold in the 8 and 12 foot sizes at $18.75 and 
$32.50, respectively. They are generally equipped with wood handles 
and removable teeth. A number of riding attachments, weighing 
100 pounds and selling at $12.50, are sold with them. 



140 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

DRAGBAR ALFALFA CULTIVATORS. 

There is beginning to be a demand for dragbar alfalfa cultivators. 
The size mostly sold is the 6^-foot, fitted with 14 teeth, which weighs 
500 pomids and sells for $80. It has a spring pressure arrangement, 
and in some cases it is fitted with a grain and grass seeder. 

ROLLERS AND PULVERIZERS. 

The demand for rollers and pulverizers is small at present, but the 
increasing interest in dry farming will probably bring about a 
greater use of them in the future. 

CORN PLANTERS. 

Since the growing of maize is the most important branch of South 
African farming, it follows that the demand for corn planters is of 
considerable importance. In the Transvaal, in particular, and to a 
large extent also in the Orange Free State, two-row planters are to be 
found on nearly every farm. It is a feature of the demand that 
whenever these machines are used the most improved two-row types 
are to be seen. It is estimated, however, that at least 35 per cent 
of the maize grown in South Africa is sown broadcast. This is 
chiefly the case in the most backward districts of the Orange Free 
State, eastern Cape Province, and in the native areas. Planting corn 
behind the plow is still done by some Boer farmers and by natives, 
particularly when new land is brought under cultivation. On sandy 
soils the natives often throw the seed on the ground and plow the 
land afterwards. 

The American type of corn planter has proved altogether satis- 
factory for South African conditions. A preference is shown for 
machines strongly built and simple in design. The bulk of the trade 
is in two-row planters with center hole plates. In some sections, 
however, edge drop plate planters are sold in small quantities. It 
can not be said that South African farmers are careful enough in 
grading their seed corn, and under such circumstances the center 
hole planter has proved more satisfactory. Nearly 85 per cent of 
the corn planters shipped to South Africa are equipped with fer- 
tilizer attachment. This should be provided with a positive double 
agitator, a feature especially desirable when using kraal manure. 
For the same reason large hoppers will often be preferred. 

Very few check row planters are sold, but it is quite likely that 
this type of planter will increase in popularity in the future. When 
check row^ planters are supplied, wire should be provided to drop 
the seed at intervals of 36 inches. There is a very small call for wire 
to drop the seed at intervals of 30 inches. 

There are no precise rules as to the distance between the rows in 
corn planting. American machines, however, are generally adjust- 
able to meet the varying ideas of South African farmers in this 
regard. From all indications the great bulk of planters are adjusted 
to plant from 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches between the rows, and from 8 
to 24 inches in the rows. Planters are often used in Natal to f)lant 
30 inches between the rows and from 12 to 18 inches in the rows. 
Generally speaking, 19 or 20 pounds of seed corn are planted to the 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 141 

acre. Leading corn growers advocate planting at a depth of 4 to 5 
inches, and this is being widely done. 

Knife or runner openers are generally used. There is also a fairly 
good demand for single-disk openers and a smaller one for double- 
disk openers. 

AH planters should be equipped with a full set of plates, including 
plates for Hickory King and Kafir corn. The sunflower plant is 
being increasingly grown in some parts of South Africa, especially 
in the Transvaal and Rhodesia, and suitable seed plates should be 
furnished when called for. Soya -bean plates and turnip attachments 
are also required in a few cases. For Rhodesia and a few other parts 
of South Africa, plates must be supplied for peanuts or monkey nuts. 
A blank plate should in all cases be shipped as a part of the equip- 
ment of the machine. 

Tongue trucks, built along the lines of those used in disk harrows, 
are desired by a growing number of farmers, especially when oxen 
are used to drive the planters. Two-horse eveners for corn planters 
are generally supplied as extras. 

One of the most popular tAvo-row corn planters sold in South 
Africa weighs 350 pounds and retails for $55. The fertilizer attach- 
ment increases the price to $75. Check-row planters sell for about $75. 

Two-row planters are packed one in a box, but a number of cases 
have been noticed where a box containing two planters has been 
preferred by the importer. It seems that in most cases the packing 
of two planters in a box makes possible a substantial saving in the 
cost of ocean freight. The manufacturers should always pack their 
machines in the smallest possible cubic space. 

THREE-ROW^ CORN DRILLS. 

A few three-row corn drills are sold, mostly in Natal. They are 
identical in construction with those that American manufacturers 
supply for the Argentine trade. Thej^ are equipped with double 
markers and must be adjustable to plant from 30 to 34 inches apart. 
One of the most popular makes of this tvpe weighs 600 pounds and 
sells for $100. 

SINGLE-ROW^ PLANTERS. 

The trade in single-row planters is relatively small. Both chain 
and gear drive planters are used, and these are also often required 
with fertilizer attachment. The. remarks made in connection with 
plates for two-row planters apply to the equipment for single-row 
planters. These planters w^eigh 100 pounds and retail for $20 to 
$22.50. The fertilizer planter weighs 130 pounds and sells for $30. 
It is customary to pack six machines in a box. 

COMPETITION IN CORN PLANTERS. 

The competition to be met by American manufacturers of corn 
planters is insignificant. English firms have made considerable 
efforts in recent years to produce satisfactory machines of this type, 
and in at least one case a very good planter has been produced by 
them. It is generally conceded, however, that American manufac- 



142 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

turers have little to fear from competition: the future trade will 
continue largely in their hands. 

It is desirable that the importance of corn planters as a leading 
tool for the South African trade should not be lost sight of by our 
manufacturers. A satisfactory corn planter will often enable a manu- 
facturer to place ard introduce some of his other lines, which other- 
wise might prove a much more difficult thing to accomplish. 

MAIZE CULTIVATORS. 

It can not be said that South African farmers have learned to 
appreciate the advantages of using corn-cultivating machinery of 
the latest type. They have shown an incomprehensible backward- 
ness in that respect, considering that, in general, they use the most 
advanced types of corn planters. No definite types of cultivators 
have so far been adopted as standard by the farmers of the country. 
A great many different varieties are stocked by dealers, but the 
majority are of the one-horse scarifier type. In the last two or three 
years, however, there has arisen a demand for walking arch culti- 
vators such as are largely used in Texas and other cotton-growing 
States — equipped, however, with 8 shovels, and in a few cases with 
10 shovels. The favor with which that style of cultivator is being 
received warrants the prediction that it will probably become one of 
the standard types among South African corn growers. 

The advent in America during the last year of the two-full-rows, 
single-arch cultivator has been hailed by a number of South African 
farmers as making available at last the type of cultivator that they 
have been awaiting for many years. The use of such a cultivator 
will lessen the acuteness of the labor difficulties ; it will induce many 
farmers to cultivate their maize crop more effectively than heretofore 
and will also make it possible for them to increase their acreage 
under that crop. 

At the present time one-horse cultivators and scarifiers are the ma- 
chines chiefly used to cultivate corn. As a low-price machine, a five- 
shovel cultivator with wood or steel handles, and without expanding 
lever, is largely used. This has an adjustable gauge wheel and is 
equipped with four 3 J -inch reversible points and an 8-inch furrower 
in the center. This machine is particularly popular in Natal for cul- 
tivating sugar cane. It weighs 60 pounds and retails for $7.50. Ordi- 
narily 10 of these cultivators are packed in a box. A similar machine 
equipped with &ve or seven shovels, but of a somewhat heavier con- 
struction, generally fitted with steel handles, gauge wheel, horse- 
hoe attachment, and expanding lever, is also very popular for corn- 
cultivation. Its retail price ranges from $8.50 to $10. 

Fourteen-tooth cultivators or harrows with expanding lever, steel 
handles, adjustable and reversible chisel or diamond-shaped teeth, 
are also often in demand. They weigh 65 pounds and retail at $8. 
In some cases these cultivators are supplied with rear wheel. Spring- 
tooth cultivators with seven adjustable teeth are also in moderate 
demand. 

The regular type of arch-walking cultivator, such as is largely 
used in the southern United States, has become very popular in re- 
cent years. The demand is chiefly for machines equipped with 8 or 
10 shovels, and with a range of adjustment to cultivate from 36 to 54 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 143 

inches. Round shank, pin break gangs are almost exclusively sold. 
When equipped with 8 shovels this machine weighs 270 pounds and 
sells for $32.50; the 10-shovel machine weighs 280 pounds and sells 
for $35. Two machines are packed in a box. 

During the past two years quite a number of disk cultivators have 
been sold in South Africa. The types used throughout the United 
States have been found satisfactory. 

Nearly all other types of cultivators are to be seen in South Africa, 
but the trade in them is relativel}^ unimportant. 

CORNSTALK CUTTERS. 

The revolving cylinder type of stalk cutter is little IniOAvn in South 
Africa, and it is doubtful whether a dozen of these machines are in 
use in that country to-day. The necessity for cutting down maize 
stalks, to plow them under, seldom occurs, because of the practice 
of letting the cattle eat them off before plowing. On the other hand, 
there is a small demand for stalk cutters that will cut maize stalks at 
the base without cutting them into small pieces, so that they can be 
gathered afterwards and stacked for feeding purposes, whenever it 
is desired to make the fields ready for plowing soon after the harvest. 
A few of these machines are sold. Those most in favor cut two rows 
at a time and are furnished with a well-built truck and platform, be- 
tween the two knives. 

GRAIN DRILLS. 

The use of grain drills by South African farmers can be said to 
be a comparatively recent development. The demand, therefore, is 
still very small, and in all probability the sales during any one year 
have never so far exceeded 200 machines. It is difficult to account 
for the rarity of grain drills in the. southwestern districts of Cape 
Province, the chief growing section of South Africa. A much 
greater number of drills, comparatively, are sold in the wheat dis- 
tricts of Orange Free State and Transvaal Provinces. 

So far there has not arisen any particular reason why drills for 
South Africa should be different from those supplied to Am.erican 
farmers. Like other machines, however, they should have an ample 
margin of strength and be as free as possible from complicated 
mechanism. 

Both single and double disk openers are sold. Double-run force 
feed, strong steel frame, steel wheels with wide rims, and independent 
acting disks forced into the ground by spring pressure are features 
found in the drills most in favor. Drills with 11 and 12 openers, 7 
inches apart, are the sizes most largely sold, although a few machines 
somewhat larger are imported. In all probability 75 per cent of the 
drills sold in South Africa are fertilizer drills. Grass-seed boxes arc 
sold in a few cases. One of the most popular 11 by 7 single-disk 
drills weighs 1,000 pounds and sells for $135. The same drill with 
fertilizer attachment sells for $175. 

One-horse five-disk drills, of the ordinary type, are sold in in- 
creasing quantities, although the trade is still as small, relatively, as 
that of the larger drills. 

Efforts in making farmers acquainted with the advantages of using 
grain drills would tend to enhance the demand. Several Cape 'J'own 



144 AGKICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

merchants have heretofore frequently advertised and demonstrated 
their drills without much success. It is doubtful whether such efforts 
will be vigorously continued unless the manufacturers themselves 
lend their assistance and encouragement. While a really notable 
trade in drills in South Africa can not be expected, yet it seems rea- 
sonable that a demand for several hundred drills per annum could 
be created. It is felt that manufacturers would be justified in making 
some efforts to develop that trade. Drills form another line in 
the introduction of which the services of a representative able to take 
a hand in demonstration work would prove of value. With the ex- 
ception of a few machines made in Australia, the demand for drills 
is supplied almost entirely by American firms. 

BROADCAST SEEDERS. 

A number of wheelbarrow grass seeders are sold for sowing alfalfa, 
timothy, and clover, as well as some 8-foot broadcast sowers for 
wheat and other small grains. Disk harrows are also equipped at 
times with broadcast seeders for small grain. The trade in all these 
machines, however, is unimportant at the present time. 

POTATO DIGGERS AND HARVESTERS. 

Various machines for potato digging are seen in South Africa, 
but the aggregate demand is rather small. The majority of potato 
diggers sold are of the plow type with shaker rods and such as can 
be converted into ridging plows. A few elevator digging machines 
are disposed of from time to time. The business in this line is very 
small, and there is no justification at present for manufacturers to 
make any efforts, other than by correspondence, to get a share of the 
business. 

POTATO PLANTERS. 

It is doubtful whether a dozen potato planters are sold in South 
Africa per annum. Manufacturers of these machines can expect only 
a slowly growing demand. American makes of potato planters are 
satisfactory for the South African trade, although English manu- 
facturers are also securing some business in that line. Fertilizer 
attachments are supplied with almost every machine. 

THRASHERS. 

The total number of thrashers sold in South Africa is not large. 
English thrashers have a good hold on the market, particularly in the 
larger sizes. American thrashers, in any considerable numbers, began 
to be sold only a few years ago. The trade is mostly confined to the 
southwestern districts of Cape Province, where the bulk of South 
Africa's small cereals are grown. As a rule farmers do not own 
thrashers. Thrashing is ordinarily done by contractors with itin- 
erant outfits, going from farm to farm. The towns in the wheat- 
growing areas have large thrashing mills, and farmers who cultivate 
only small acreages cart their crop there to be thrashed. 

The sizes most largely sold in South Africa are 3, 3|, and 4-foot 
machines. The preference for English thrashers is due to the fact 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 145 

that they are constructed so as to stand better the rough usage that 
they receive at the hands of the labor employed in South Africa 
and the traveling over the poor roads in the country districts. Heavy 
wheels and axles, as well as rigid and strong frames, are very im- 
portant features. Most of the large machines are equipped with 
grading and bagging attachments. Heavy belts are also insisted 
upon. Very few American thrashers of large capacity have been sold 
in South Africa, and these have not given satisfaction. Their large 
output and general design impressed their purchasers very favor- 
ably, but their construction Avould not stand up to the rough hand- 
ling. It would seem that there is scope for the manufacture in Amer- 
ica of thrashers that will withstand these severe conditions. A mar- 
ket for them would be found not only in South Africa but, appar- 
ently, in many other countries as well. The increased cost of build- 
ing this higher-grade machine would undoubtedly be paid without 
reluctance by the farmers of those countries. 

During the past two or three years a number of medium-size 
thrashers of American manufacture have been placed in the Cape 
Town territory. These have, in the main, been purchased by indi- 
vidual farmers to thrash their own crop and, in some cases, that of 
their immediate neighbors. They have 24 and 30-inch cylinders. 
Straw chopper and bruiser attachments for these and for the larger 
sizes are sold. 

There is some demand for hand and power stationary thrashers 
with 14 and 18 inch cylinders. These are sold in the districts where 
wheat is not grown in large quantities, and only by individual farm- 
ers, and where it would be too costly on account of the distance for 
large itinerant outfits to be engaged, because of the amount of travel 
required to do only a few hours' work. 

In Rhodesia there is an urgent demand for low-priced peanut 
thrashers, as well as for machines to thrash sunflower seed. The 
present method of thrashing sunflower seed is to have the heads 
knocked over by a revolving bicycle wheel. The machines need to be 
suitable for the use of individual farmers, who grow these crops in 
plots seldom exceeding 25 acres. 

WINNOWERS. 



General-purpose winnowers, with riddles for grain and seed wheat, 
oats, barley, beans, and p^s, are sold in small quantities. A machine 
largely in demand has riddles 20 inches Avide by 18 inches long and 
is constructed for hand and motor power. As a rule English 
machines predominate, but a few American machines are to be seen. 
The demand for winnowers, however, is quite small. 

STEAM ENGINES. 

A few steam engines are sold to operate large thrashers and shellers 
and for use in connection with irrigation. English manufacturers 
are supplying the entire demand with machines that South African 
merchants claim to be as efficient as and better constructed and fin- 
ished than American engines, though the prices are no higher. 

Since South African roads are usually very rough it is important 
that wheels and axles should be particularly strong. Adequate pro- 

1276°— 17— No. 146 10 



146 AGEICULTTJEAL IMPLEMEIsTTS AND MACHINERY. 

vision must also be made for the convenient cleaning of the boilers, 
since water supplies are generally inadequate and frequently water 
containing considerable sediment is used. A good many of the en- 
gines sold are furnished to burn straw as fuel. Traction steam 
engines are sold with the larger thrashing and shelling outfits. These 
are 4 and 6 N. H. P. (British), weighing 8,500 and 10,000 pounds 
and selling for $1,150 and $1,450. Portable vertical steam engines in 
the smaller sizes have been imported in the past, but apparently the 
coming of the gas engine has greatly interfered with their sale in 
recent years. 

No American steam engines are sold in South Africa, and since the 
trade for this class of goods in any case is not very important, and 
it would require extreme enterprise to induce farmers to discard 
English engines and take up those made in the United States, the 
prospects for American manufacturers are not particularly encour- 
aging. 

GAS TRACTORS. 

Considerable interest in tractors was observed in South Africa in 
the early part of 1913, when the Port Elizabeth Agricultural Society 
arranged and carried out a series of public trials of agricultural trac- 
tors. Chiefly as a result of the publicity given to tractors by that 
event about 30 of these were sold during that year. In the great 
majority of cases, however, when these machines were worked by 
farmers, instead of the factory experts who handled them at the 
Port Elizabeth trials, they proved too complicated and difficult to 
operate and keep up. The operating expenses, furthermore, proved 
disappointing, chiefly by reason of the price of fuel, which ordinarily 
costs in South Africa twice as much as in the United States. In all 
probability the great majority of tractors sold in South Africa in 
1913 have changed hands during the past three years, and at a con- 
siderable loss to the original owners. 

One of the factors chiefly responsible for the unpopularity of trac- 
tors is that as a rule the machines now in South Africa were pur- 
chased with the assistance of descriptive matter prepared for dis- 
tribution in the United States. South African farmers, not being 
aware of the conditions prevailing in the United States, did not 
always take into account the fact that a tractor which would easily 
handle eight plows in the prairies of the Middle West would pull only 
four or five plows in South Africa. 

It is generally believed that the 30 to 40 horsepower drawbar trac- 
tors such as were sold in South Africa in 1913 will never again be in 
favor. Little experience has been had with such small tractors as 
are now produced by many American firms. The natural factors 
operating against the extensive use of tractors should not be over- 
looked. Labor is cheap, and draft animals can be raised and kept 
with minimum expense and can be worked the year round, if neces- 
sary. With proper management, oxen and natives, despite their 
drawbacks, should enable the farmers to perform the various agri- 
cultural operations at a lower cost than with tractors. The high cost 
of fuel and lubricants represents one of the most serious handicaps 
in the latter method. 

The representative of an American firm manufacturing small 
tractors visited South Africa in June, 1916, and reported that a 



MARKETS IB SOUTH AFRICA. 147 

marked interest was aroused by the sample machines he took with 
him to that country. A number of public demonstrations were given 
with them, a few sales were made immediately, and several importers 
vvere induced to take up the agency for their sale. While, as a rule, 
South African importers of farm machinery are rather skeptical 
in regard to the sale of gas tractors, it is felt that a number of them 
could be interested if American manufacturers gave them an oppor- 
tunity to see the machines in actual work. This can only be done by 
sending to South Africa competent representatives with sample 
machines. Unless this course is taken, it will be very difficult to 
interest South African merchants in small tractors, because of the un- 
fortunate and unprofitable experience of those who imported the 
tractors sold in 1913. 

American manufacturers shipping tractors to South Africa should 
include an extra set of spark plugs as part of their equipment. The 
difficulty in getting spark plugs has caused much annoyance in the 
past. New plugs have at times been required during demonstrations 
of tractors, prior to the sale, and the difficulty in this regard has cer- 
tainly not assisted in the consummation of the sale. 

GAS ENGINES. 

The popularity that gas engines enjoy among the farmers of the 
United States does not as yet find a parallel in South Africa. The 
high cost of fuel and the lack of knoAvledge of their operation among 
South African farmers are factors which, more than anything else, 
retard the Avider adoption of gas engines for farm work. 

Nearly all farm-machinery merchants import gas engines, and a 
number of firms not in that trade also sell gas engines of those types 
largeh^ used in farm work. The trade is largely supplied by Ameri- 
can manufacturers, but a considerable number of higher-grade Eng- 
lish engines are sold. In general, American gas engines are not con- 
sidered to be constructed as substantially as is desired. It has often 
been remarked that, as a rule, they sell chiefly on account of their 
original low cost. Several American engines, however, are reputed 
to represent very good value, and importers handling these say that 
they are quite satisfactory for their trade. South Africa offers an 
excellent field for the sale of cheaply constructed goods, but in no 
case has a permanent trade been created for goods of that character. 
Only gas engines that have fully stood the test and have been found 
reliable, strong, and durable should be offered in that country if a 
lasting and profitable trade is desired. 

On account of the high cost of fuel, kerosene -burning engines are 
preferred. The majority of the American engines that have been 
represented as capable of successful operation with kerosene as fuel 
have actually been found wanting, and have only proved a success 
when in the hands of very competent operators. Really successful 
kerosene engines will always find a ready sale in the South African 
market. 

Hopper-cooled engines fitted with magneto are the most popular. 
These are used for grinding, pumping, shelling corn, sawing wood, 
cutting chaff and bark, running small grain separators, and other 
classes of farm work. The use of electric batteries should be avoided, 
as it is both difficult and expensive to secure satisfactory replacements 



148 AGEKJUl^TUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

for these in South Africa. The high altitude in which the greater 
part of South Africa is situated should be taken into account, and 
any features designed to prevent the loss of power experienced when 
gas engines are operated in high altitudes should be incorporated in 
the construction of gas engines shipped to that country. Horizontal 
engines are almost exclusively used for farm work, and 75 per cent 
of those sold are sizes ranging from 1 to 4 horsepower. Except for 
irrigation purposes few engines larger than 8 horsepower are sold. 
Various estimates as to the demand for gas engines in South Africa 
indicate that from 350 to 600 of these are sold per annum. Semi- 
Diesel engines to run on crude oil are much in favor for pumping 
water from rivers and streams for irrigation purposes. It is said 
that the cost of operating crude-oil engines is only one- fourth the cost 
of running kerosene engines. The price of crude oil in South Africa 
is about one-third that of kerosene, and it is claimed that the quan- 
tity of crude oil used is much less than in the case of kerosene. Ar- 
rangements have been made to carry large stocks of crude oil in the 
principal trading centers of South Africa, and undoubtedly a good 
many crude-oil-burning engines will be sold in that country in the 
next few years. Ordinarily the same grades of fuel obtainable in the 
United States are offered in South Africa. Gasoline, however, is 
called " petrol " and kerosene " paraffin." The future of the gas- 
engine trade in South Africa hinges very largely on the cost of fuel. 
When this is obtainable at reasonable prices the demand will rapidly 
increase and reasonable efforts to introduce well-built engines selling 
at moderate prices would accordingly be justified. 

BINDERS. 

The census of 1911 gave the number of binders at that time on 
South African farms as 3,829. On an average, 1,000 binders are 
imported per annum. Fully 75 per cent of these are imported by 
Cape Town and Malmesbury firms. The binder is almost univer- 
sally used in southwestern Cape Province for cutting wheat, oats, 
etc. 

Except that a strongly built binder is required, there is no differ- 
ence between the machines shipped to South Africa and those used 
in the United States. Five and six foot machines are in demand, the 
latter being the most popular size. Six-foot binders, weighing 1,600 
pounds, sell for $225. Bundle carriers and fore-carriages are gen- 
erally supplied at an extra charge. 

American manufacturers have a very large share of South Africa's 
binder trade. Canadian manufacturers are their closest competitors, 
securing possibly 20 per cent of the business. English binders are 
not seen very often. 

There is reason to expect that the demand for binders Avill increase 
in the next few years. It is evident that there is more land in South 
Africa suitable for wheat growing than has formerly been believed 
to exist. In the Orange P ree State and Transvaal Provinces, where 
wheat growing is making rapid progress, this crop is still cut with 
reapers (and mowers with reaper attachments) to a very great ex- 
tent. As has been shown elsewhere, South Africa is not likely ever 
to become a wheat-exporting country, but every effort is being made 
to grow that cereal in sufficiently large quantities to provide for 
domestic consumption. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 149 

REAPERS. 

The sale of reapers in South Africa appears to have declined in 
recent years, giving way to the self-binder. Reapers, however, are 
still being sold in considerable numbers in several parts of South 
Africa, chiefly in the 5-foot size. One of the best known makes 
Aveighs 950 pounds and sells for $110. Almost the entire trade in 
reapers is supplied b}^ American factories. 

STRIPPER HARVESTERS. 

A number of stripper harvesters are shipped to South Africa every 
year by Australian manufacturers. Five and 6 foot machines, sell- 
ing for $600 and $650, are mostly sold. American machines of this 
type have been introduced during the past few years, and while the 
trade is not important, nor likely ever to become so, it seems certain 
that it will be largely diverted to American firms because of the 
advantage they have in being able to supply the other types of 
harvesting machinery required in South Africa. 

CORN BINDERS. 

During the past two or three years a number of corn binders have 
been sold in South Africa. Different views are expressed as to 
the future demand for these machines, but it is not likely that it will 
attain an}^ great importance for many years to come. While the 
scarcit}^ of labor is frequently in evidence, and it is doubtful whether 
native labor is as cheap as farmers believe, it wdll nevertheless be 
difficult to induce farmers to invest from $225 to $250 in a machine 
of this t3^pe. 

The prevalent farming practices, largely influenced by the exist- 
ing climatic conditions, operate against the extensive use of corn 
binders. Cornstalks, as a rule, are fed to the cattle in the field, 
the winters being never too severe to prevent this at any time. 
Among the most progressive farmers there is likely to develop a 
small demand for corn binders with which to cut green maize for 
ensilage purposes. On the whole, it does not seem that the demand 
for these machines is likely to become important. A few dozen ma- 
chines, however, Avill probably be sold in South Africa every year. 

CORN PICKERS. 

Corn pickers are unknown in South Africa at this time, but if 
proper efforts were made to acquaint farmers with their advantages, 
it would doubtless be possible to sell some of them. In the Transvaal 
and Rhodesia there are dozens of farms in which from 500 to 1,000 
acres of maize are grown every year. If it can be shown to their 
owners that corn pickers will satisfactorily harvest the crop, and 
that this can be done more advantageously than with native pick- 
ing by hand, a number of sales would quite probably be the result. 

MOWERS. 

It is estimated that from 1,500 to 2,000 mowers are sold in South 
Africa every year. The majority of these are supplied by American 



150 AGEICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

firms, but a greater proportion than is the case with binders are 
supplied by English and Canadian manufacturers. 

In several sections of Cape Province, chiefly in the districts in 
which Cape Town and Port Elizabeth importers operate, a good 
many 3^-foot moAvers are sold. In the other parts of South Africa 
the demand is almost entirely confined to 4 J, 5, and 6 foot machines. 

The mowers sold in South Africa do not differ in any respect from 
those used in the United States. A preference is shown, however, for 
strongly built machines, and this partly accounts for the business 
done by English firms, who find a ready market for their machines, 
although they ask higher prices than American makers. Vertical-lift 
mowers are much in favor, although there does not seen to be any 
special reason why that type should be preferred. It is usually a 
matter of opinion with the importer to sell this instead of the 
ordinary type. Steel pitmans are often preferred to wood pitmans. 
Mowers are almost invariabl}^ supplied with one extra knife, two 
extra guards, and six extra sections. 

In the Transvaal, Orange Free State, and eastern Cape Province, 
there is a fairly large demand for reaper attachments for mowers. 
These are bought by farmers growing wheat, oats, etc., in a rather 
small way. Fifteen dollars is generally asked for this attachment. 

On the whole, a 3^-foot mower, weighing 550 pounds, sells for 
$67.50, and a 4^-foot machine, weighing 700 pounds, for $80. Fore- 
carriages are sometimes wanted, for which $8 to $10 additional is 
charged. 

RAKES. 

The majority of rakes used in South Africa are of the American 
pattern. Eight, 10 and 12 foot self-dump rakes are those mostly in 
evidence — chiefly the 8-foot size. A heavy type of rake with teeth 
one-half or five-eighths inch in diameter is preferred. One of the most 
popular 8-foot rakes in that market weighs 400 pounds and sells for 
$40. The 10-foot machine weighs 475 pounds and retails for $50. 
Two complete rakes, less wheels, are shipped in one box. The wheels 
are shipped without boxing, the two wheels being simply wired to- 
gether. The demand for rakes is in keeping with that for mowers. 

Side- delivery rakes and tedders are yerj little in demand, and only 
one or two firms carry them in stock. Owing to the increasing extent 
to which alfalfa and other hay crops are grown, it is hoped that 
these machines, as well as sweep rakes, hay loaders, and hay stackers, 
will gradually find their way into a good many South African farms. 

HAY PRESSES. 

The demand for hay presses has increased considerably in recent 
years. ' In part this is to be attributed to the fact that, instead of 
the alfalfa crop being fed to the ostriches, it has been cut and sold. 
Lately the rearing of ostriches has proved unprofitable because of the 
low price paid for feathers. Since the war began, furthermore, the 
demand for baled hay for the imperial and colonial military forces 
has caused satisfactory prices to be offered for that commodity. The 
demand for hay presses, however, is certain to continue even after the 
disappearance of the conditions that stimulate this trade at present. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 151 

Many types of baling presses are to be seen in South Africa to-day, 
but the one and tTvo horse machines are most likely to hold their own 
as the favorite types. These are supplied with jack and tie maker and 
chiefly with 14 by 18 inch chambers ; 16 to 18 inch baling chambers, 
however, are also often called for. One-horse presses weighing 2,000 
pounds for bales 14 by 18 inches sell at $200. Two-horse presses, 
weighing 2,600 pounds, for bales 16 by 18 inches, sell at $350. The few 
belt and motor driven baling presses sold in South Africa have usually 
17 by 22 inch chambers. 

Quite a number of hand-power, toggle-lever presses are sold. These 
retail at $50 to $60. Tobacco, forage, and wool balers, to make bales 
36 by 20 by 22 inches, are also sold in limited quantities at a retail 
price of about $85. 

CORN SHELLERS. 

Almost every tyipe, of corn sheller can be purchased in South Africa, 
and the total trade in these machines has already become fairly im- 
portant. • On the whole, American makes are well represented, es- 
pecially hand and small and medium size power machines. The trade 
in large portable combined buskers and shellers was for a long time 
supplied entirely by English manufacturers, but the efforts made in 
recent years by representatives of American firms have resulted in 
the creation of a good business for their medium-sized machines. 
The trade in the larger machines, however, still remains quite solidly 
in the hands of English firms. On the whole, it is believed that at 
least 75 per cent of the thrashers of all kinds are supplied by American 
factories. 

American corn- sheller manufacturers would be justified in making 
greater efforts for the sale of their product in South Africa. Firms 
displaying sufficient enterprise in making their goods known and 
popular by means of field demonstrations, or other effective means, 
will undoubtedly be well compensated for their efforts. Maize grow- 
ing will almost certainly undergo considerable development in South 
Africa in the next few years, and the demand for shellers should 
become an item of considerable importance. 

As in the case of other American lines, the opinion is held by many 
South African farmers that our shellers, while excellent in every other 
respect, are not sufficiently strong to withstand the severe treatment 
that they receive in that country m consequence of the inefficient and 
careless labor employed in operating them. In a great many cases 
the strengthening of a few parts is all that would be necessary to con- 
vert a failure into a success. American manufacturers should con- 
sider this important requirementv and take steps to prevent the con- 
demnation of their machines because of a few unsatisfactory parts. 
It must be observed that the complaints heard in this connection were 
less insistent than those made in regard to other classes of American 
farm machinery. 

Among the types in greater demand there is a small drum sheller 
with either 21 or 30 inch solid cylinder, with a capacity of 1,500 to 
2.000 pounds per hour. Farmers favor types that are bolted instead 
of nailed, and suitable for both hand and belt power. This ma- 
chine weighs 275 pounds and sells for $22.50. A one-hole machine 
with a capacity of 800 pounds per hour, weighing 150 pounds and 



152 AGKICULTTJEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEBY. 

selling for $16.50, is also much in demand. This is equipped with 
feed table and shaker attachment. 

The machine enjoying the greatest favor is a two-hole sheller with 
a capacity of 1,500 to 2,000 pounds of corn per hour. This must be 
adjustable for small or large ears and equipped with extra-large feed 
table, side-delivery spouts, extra-long shaker, grader for two dif- 
ferent kinds, combined flywheel and pulley 10 by 4 inches, and be 
put together with bolts instead of nails. This machine weighs 300 
pounds and sells at $30 to $35. Single bagger attachments are often 
supplied as extras. The most popular shellers of this class are fitted 
with roller bearings. 

A fairly large number of buskers and shellers of the largest type 
are in use in South Africa. Owing to the capital outlay involved in 
their purchase, comparatively few farmers own machines of this type. 
The number of itinerant machines, however, is increasing. These 
travel from farm to farm, husking and shelling for a percentage of 
the crop, or at a fixed price per bushel^ or at so much per day. These 
shellers are supplied almost entirely by English makers. 'The ma- 
chine in greatest favor is equipped with a helical drum, self-feeding 
cob elevator, dressing and blower attachment, and grader. It is 
made with 42 and 60 inch drums. The small size has a capacity of 
2,000 to 3,000 bushels per day of husked maize and half that quantity 
of unhusked crop. It weighs 6,000 pounds and sells for $800. The 
large machine has a capacity of 3,000 to 5,000 bushels of husked 
corn, weighs over 8,000 pounds and sells for $1,200. Portable steam 
engines, English-made, are used to operate them. 

American two-hole shuck shellers weighing 2,500 pounds, with a 
capacity of 600 to 800 bushels of unhusked corn per day^ to work at 
a speed of 730 to 750 revolutions of balance wheel per minute, are 
being sold in increasing quantities and are likely to come into great 
favor in the future. These sell for $400, are mounted on wheels 28 
inches in diameter and of 4-inch face, and are equipped with swivel 
cob stacker and extension drag or folding feeder elevator. 

The shellers indicated are the types most in demand in South 
Africa, but manufacturers who have anything to offer possessing 
special advantages in the sheller line should not fail to get in touch 
with importers of that country, as the market offers great possibili- 
ties for the sale of corn-shelling machinery. 

FEED GRINDERS AND CRUSHERS. 

Owing to the fact that corn meal is the natives' chief article of diet, 
the use of feed grinders is almost universal and a large or small 
grinding mill is to be found on the great majority of farms. While 
the making of corn meal is the principal object for which these mills 
are purchased, they are also used to some extent for grinding cattle 
feed, although this is not a practice extensively followed. 

Many types and sizes of grinders are sold in South Africa, from 
the small size for hand operation and domestic use, selling for $8, 
to power-operated machines selling for $200. Mills with iron burrs 
are used almost exclusively. For hand operation a grinding mill 
quite extensively sold in South Africa has metal burrs or plates, with 
two cranks, heavy flywheel, and iron stand. This machine weighs 
225 pounds, sells for $25, and has a capacity of 200 to 300 pounds of 



MARKETS IX SOUTH AFRICA. 153 

fine meal per day. A combined pulley and flywheel, 10 b}' 3J inches, 
is often supplied for motive po^Yer for this mill. Mills of this de- 
scription will kibble or grind all kinds of grain and will reduce 
wheat, corn, coffee, etc., to any degree of fineness. The demand for 
mills of this type is entirely supplied by English firms. 

Power corn-and-cob grinders of American manufacture havfe been 
sold in increasing quantities in recent years. These have steel frames, 
hoppers, and legs, and are sold in 8 and 10 inch sizes to grind, respec- 
tivel}', up to 2,000 pounds and 3,000 pounds of corn and cob meal 
per hour. These mills are capable of adjustment to produce fine 
meal for table use. Gas engines of from 4 to 10 horsepower are used 
to operate them. The grinders described retail at $67.50 and $75 and 
Aveigh 250 and 350 pounds, respectively. Elevators with double bag- 
ging attachment are supplied in some instances, increasing the price 
by $17.50. 

Sweep corn-and-cob mills are also sold in limited quantities to 
grind feed for stock purposes. These are also suitable to crush oats 
and other kinds of grain and to produce an average quality meal for 
table use. They have generally a capacity of 500 pounds of Corn- 
and-cob. kibblings and 100 pounds of table meal per hour, weigh 400 
pounds, and retail for $37.50. 

Stone burr grinding mills for motive power, in 30 and 36 inch sizes, 
are also imported in small quantities. 

Corn and oat crushers for stock feed are sold only in small num- 
bers. The most popular machine of this kind has two steel grooved 
rollers, 2^ and 5 J inches, respectively, weighs 125 pounds, and sells 
for $20. Larger machines with fluted rollers 8 by 8 inches and for 
native power are imported by a few firms. 

FARM WAGONS AND TRUCKS. 

None of the farm-machinery houses of South Africa carry im- 
ported farm wagons in stock. Indent orders, however, are placed 
noAv and then on behalf of farmers who have used foreign wagons 
in the past. The United States is the only country supplying such 
goods Avhen the}^ are obtained from overseas. Local manufacturers 
now supply the demand, and, on the Avhole, they produce a creditable 
article. Wagons are often built to suit the personal wishes of the 
individual buyer. Since it is out of the question to hope to regain 
this business, because of the intention^ of the Government to protect 
the domestic industry bj/ means of a tariff on foreign goods, it will 
not be necessary to describe the types in demand — the more so as the 
number of varieties made is enormous, and they are frequently differ- 
ent from anything ever produced by American manufacturers. 

Very strongly built buck wagons with extra large wheels, made 
in 16, 17, and 18 foot lengths, for loads of 5 to 6 tons, and selling for 
between $300 and $500, still hold first rank as the most distinctive 
and most widely used South African wagons. 

A directory of the coach, cart, wagon, and motor-body builders in 
South Africa contains 200 names. In the Transvaal the w^hite 
workers employed in this industry are paid from $25 to $30 per 
week. In Cape Province both white and colored persons are em- 
ployed, earning an average of $3 per day. The railways apply a 
preferential freight rate on shipments of South African wagons. A 



154 AGRIOULTTJEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHIE^EEY. 

good deal of locally grown wood is used. Stinkwood, ironwood, and 
other South African woods, when properly seasoned and dried, make 
excellent material. Hickory, ash, poplar, and other woods must be 
imported. The wagon manufacturers of the Union export their 
goods to all countries in the subcontinent of Africa. 

In Rhodesia there is a good demand for steel farm trucks, which 
is entirely supplied by American manufacturers. Several sizes are 
sold, but one with a capacity of 4,000 pounds and another with a 
capacity of 6,000 pounds are the most popular. These are built with 
36-inch front wheels, 42-inch back wheels, and tires f by 5 inches.. 
The lighter type weighs 700 pounds and sells in Rhodesia for $112 ; 
the heavier type weighs 1,000 pounds and sells for $150. The length 
of these trucks is adjustable. They are imported without boxes or 
any other carrying equipment, as this is made locally and often to 
special order. 

There is undoubtedly a possible market in many parts of South 
Africa for the sale of steel trucks, but it will be difficult to develop it 
without earnest and special efforts by the manufacturers. Manufac- 
turers of steel trucks should either send salesmen to South Africa or 
make arrangements with implement manufacturers having resident 
representatives in South Africa. The latter course is preferable, for 
the reason that it would take perhaps two years to build up a demand 
warranting the expenses of a man giving his entire time to this busi- 
ness. In either case men entrusted with this work should be fully 
conversant with the goods and should be given sufficient latitude to 
offer special inducements in order to stimulate interest among pro- 
spective importers. 

The type of wagon popular in South Africa is generally heavy, 
for loads ranging from 4,000 to 12,000 pounds ; consequently only the 
most substantial types of trucks should be offered. In shipping 
wagons to South Africa it should be remembered that such parts of 
steel, iron, or wood as are large and strong enough to withstand 
rough handling need not be boxed. Most parts of a steel truck would 
come under this provision. Small parts, which are liable to become 
lost, should always be boxed. A little forethought will easily suggest 
the right thing to do in this respect. 

CARRIAGES. 

Years ago there was an active demand for American vehicles of 
various descriptions, but the advent of local carriage manufacturing, 
assisted by a customs duty of 25 per cent, has caused a great reduction 
in the importation of this class of goods. Two-wheeled carts, or 
" Cape " carts, in particular, were imported in very large quantities, 
whereas but few of these are brought in at present. In past years a 
few high-grade carriages were also imported, but their excessive cost 
of importation and the advent of the motor car have operated against 
a continuance of the business. 

It hardly seems justifiable to suggest that carriage manufacturers 
new to the South African trade should make any efforts to get a 
share of the business that is still being done. The most that can be 
hoped is that the manufacturers who have supplied the demand in 
the past, and who are conversant with the details of the business, 
may continue to sell a few of their goods a few years longer. The 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 155 

United States supplies the bulk of the carriages at present imported, 
as well as a good proportion of the parts imported by local carriage 
manufacturers which can not as yet be procured in the country. 

WINDMILLS. 

In normal times windmills are imported into the Union at the rate 
of $350,000 worth per annum, of which $300,000 worth come from 
the United States. An increasing demand for windmills, propor- 
tionate with the development attained by the agricultural and pas- 
toral industries of the country, is generally expected. In addition 
to the windmills used to obtain farm water supplies, a great number 
are sold in the smaller towns that have no public waterworks in order 
to pump water for household purposes. 

Steel windmills with wheels 8, 10, 12, and 14 feet in diameter are 
sold in large numbers. There is also a small demand for 16, 18, and 
20 foot windmills. Double-geared wdndmills are in great favor and 
much preferred to single-geared mills. In some sections of the 
country great difficulty is experienced in selling single-geared mills. 
Effective lubrication arrangements and high-class bearings are fea- 
tures that appeal to the buyers. Four-post towers ranging in size 
from 20 to 50 feet are in demand. Ten and 12 inches is the length 
of the stroke most generally supplied. For deep wells 14 and 16 
inch strokes are offered. Ranch towers with 7 to 9 foot bases are 
sold in rather small quantities. 

The Bechuanaland Protectorate is expected to offer an important 
market for the sale of windmills within the next few years, since it 
has been lately ascertained that large underground water supplies 
are to be found there and that many sections of that country are 
suitable for pastoral operations. 

East London is one of the most important centers for the sale of 
windmills. The territory the merchants of that city cover is closely 
setttled, and an abundance of underground water exists almost every- 
where. The strip of land in Cape Province lying west of Orange 
Free State and extending to the Rhodesian border, including the 
cities of Mafeking, Kimberley, and Vryburg, depends almost entirely 
on windmills for farm and household water supplies. 

In computing various estimates it is found that about 50 per cent 
of the windmills sold in South Africa are 10-foot, 25 per cent 12- 
foot, 15 per cent 8-foot, 5 per cent 14-foot, and 5 per cent 16-foot. 
Thirty-foot towers appear to be the size most in demand. 

American manufacturers have little competition to contend with. 
An English firm sells a fair number of windmills, chiefly as a result 
of the excellent selling organization it has in South Africa. This 
firm maintains branches in all important cities, being especially 
engaged in the sale of piping and irrigation supplies. A Cape Town 
firm manufactures windmills, but its output is not believed to be 
large. American windmills enjoy the reputation of being extremely 
efficient and obtainable at reasonable prices. 

PUMPS. 

There is such a diversity of pumps in South Africa that it is 
difficult to indicate the types most extensively in demand. What 
would appW to one section of the country would not apply to others. 



156 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

Practically all types of pumps are to be found in South Africa, and 
American manufacturers supply almost the entire demand for pumps 
for farm purposes. More than'75 per cent of the boreholes and wells 
of South Africa lie within 20 feet of the surface. 

SPRAYING MACHINERY. 

Very few up-to-date spraying outfits are used in South Africa. 
Since fruit growing is extensively carried on in the southwestern 
districts of Cape Province and apple and orange cultivation is likely 
to make greater progress in the Transvaal and other parts of the 
country in the next few years there appears to be an opportunity to 
introduce spraying machinery. As a general rule importers now 
carry in stock only a small bucket and barrel spraying pump. 

Locusts have been a pest in different sections of South Africa 
from time to time, and the Government has purchased upward of 
10,000 small spraying pumps, which have been loaned to farmers in 
the infested districts. It is felt that South Africa affords some good 
possibilities for the sale of small spraying outfits, and that a number 
of contractors' sprayers could also be placed if proper efforts were 
made. 

SILOS AND ENSILAGE CUTTERS. 

Silos are gaining in popularity, and they can already be seen on 
a great many South African farms. While up-to-date and pre- 
tentious structures are observed from time to time, the majority of 
silos are of the pit type. The better class of silos are generally made 
of concrete or cement. Wood silos are hardly likely to prove satis- 
factory owing to the great daily range of temperature in the districts 
where the}^ would be erected. One can hardly expect to develop a 
demand for imported wood silos in South Africa, for these could 
advantageously be produced locally if a demand for them should 
arise. 

The demand for ensilage cutters is rapidly increasing. Hand 
feed and ensilage cutters of the cylinder type are extensively sold. 
One of the most popular machines on the market, with two 8J-inch 
knives, weighs 175 pounds and retails for $22.50. In the ll-inch 
size, with tAvo knives, it weighs 450 pounds and sells for $50. There 
is also a large sale for cutters of the same type with two or four 
11-inch knives for motor power. The demand is mostly for machines 
equipped with plain tables, but there is also a large sale for machines 
with self-feed tables and blower attachment. The trade in cylinder 
ensilage cutters is entirely in the hands of American manufacturers. 
An American manufacturer has established such an enviable repu- 
tation for his ensilage cutters that nearly every merchant in South 
Africa imports them without insisting upon exclusive selling rights 
for a prescribed area. 

Few ensilage cutters of the flywheel type are sold in South Africa, 
but those sold are nearly always made in England. 

A great deal of difficulty was experienced in the past in selling 
small hand cutters for one-man operation. The natives had a strong 
dislike for them. They often willfully broke parts of the machines 
with a view of making the owner form an unfavorable opinion of 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



157 



tliem, so that he would buy a different type of machine when again 
in the market. 

Ensilage cutters are assured a permanent place among the indis- 
pensable machines for the South African farm, and the outlook for 
a steadily increasing demand is very satisfactory. 

CHAFF CUTTERS. 

Almost invariably the chaff cutters sold in South Africa are of 
the flywheel type (see fig. 6), and the demand is almost entirely 
supplied by English manufacturers. Small machines predominate. 
Chaff cutters weighing 180 pounds and selling for $18.50 and larger 
machines weighing 325 pounds and selling for- $32.50 are mostly in 
demand. A few large machines for 
custom and mill work, equipped 
with automatic feeder and elevator, 
are sold. Chaff cutters suitable 
also for cutting prickly pear and 
wattle bark are popular in certain 
districts. There is a small demand 
for root cutters and slicers and, 
in Oudtshoorn, for alfalfa cutters. 
As a rule all chaff cutters are 
equipped with two knives and have 
cast-iron legs. 

It is difficult to account for the 
small number of American chaff 
cutters to be seen in South Africa. 
The impression is gained that thus 
far American manufacturers have 
not made suitable efforts to obtain 
a share of that business. A good 
deal of effort and interest will be 
required to enter the market. The 
trade has long been accustomed to 

the English-made article, and unless a better article is offered or the 
prices are more advantageous it will be difficult to overcome the 
preference for English machines. 

CREAM SEPARATORS. 

The value of the articles imported into South Africa under the 
heading of "dairy appliances" is about $225,000 per annum. The 
bulk of this is composed of cream separators. Sweden supplies nearly 
three-fourths of these. In normal times Germany, Belgium, and 
England supply the remainder. Less than $10,000 per annum is 
contributed by American firms. The ability of the Swedish manu- 
facturers to offer an efficient article at a moderate price is, in the main, 
responsible for the good business they enjoy. An American firm, 
through its capable South African representative, has lately made 
some efforts to create a demand for its cream separators in that 
countr3^ It is believed that these efforts will prove successful. It 
may be hoped that our share of the South African cream-separator 
trade will gradually become greater. 




Fig. 6. 



-Chaff cutter, fly-wheel 
made in England. 



type, 



158 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

There are a great many makes of cream separators in the South 
African market. The demand is about equally divided between ma- 
chines selling on price rather than on quality and those selling be- 
cause of their good workmanship and efficient operation. The sizes 
sold range from 12 to 90 gallons capacity, selling for from $22.50 to 
$150. Twenty-five to 40 gallon separators are those most widely sold. 

DAIRY-BARN EQUIPMENT. 

Owing to the favorable climatic conditions, which make it unneces- 
sary to provide winter shelter for live stock, the demand for barn 
equipment is almost nil. Imported barn equipment has been pur- 
chased only in a few cases, by wealthy farmers, more to make a show 
place of their dairies than for any other reason. 

MILKING MACHINES. 

So far as it has been possible to ascertain, no importer of farm 
machinery carries milking machines in stock. Very few, if any, 
of these machines have been sold in South Africa so far. 

FENCING AND GATES. 

The most common type of cattle and sheep fencing seen in South 
Africa is from 4 to 5 feet high and consists of 4, 5, or 6 strands of 
wire attached to iron standards and straining posts, with iron drop- 
pers or wire lacings between the standards in some instances. The 
top or the two top wires are of barbed wire, and the others of plain 
wire. Where high-class ostriches for breeding purposes are kept in 
small fields fences are generally 6 feet high and are interlaced with 
either wire lacings or pieces of brush. Fences for large ostrich runs 
are rarely more than 2J feet high. To protect cultivated fields 
against the ravages of jackals wire netting with 1^ or 2 inch mesh 
of 19-gauge wire is sometimes used, in addition to the regular fencing. 
This is imported in rolls 50 yards long and 24, 30, 36, and 48 inches 
-(sometimes 6 feet) wide. A similar kind of netting is used for fields 
where poultry is kept. There is very little demand for woven wire 
fencing, and few firms carry this material in stock. 

South African gates are generally 15 feet wide. The demand for 
gates is quite extensive. In all Provinces of the Union, except Natal, 
the main roads are intersected by fence gates so as to avoid the ex- 
pense of fencing alongside them. Nearly all farm gates are manu- 
factured locally, and it is doubtful whether foreign manufacturers 
could compete with those of the Union. 

MANURE SPREADERS. 

The demand for spreaders is insignificant, and only one or two 
importers carry machines of this kind in stock. Probably less than 
25 spreaders have been sold in South Africa thus far. The cheap- 
ness of native labor and the fact that no stable manure in quantities 
is produced, since the cattle run loose in the fields day and night the 
year round, account for the small demand. The high cost of artificial 
fertilizers, on the pther hand, is likely to induce farmers to adopt 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFBICA. 159 

methods conducive to the production and utilization of cattle and 
stable manure, especially whenever intensive methods of farming 
are adopted. 

The districts near Cape Town, on account of the somewhat colder 
climate, offer better prospects for the sale of spreaders than any 
other section of South Africa. A growing number of farmers build 
shelters for their cattle to protect the animals against the cold winter 
winds. These shelters, however, are limited to stacks of straw in 
the paddocks, near the farmhouses, in the shape of a broad U. In 
the best dairy districts, where high- class dairying and pedigreed 
stock is kept, suitable buildings have, in a few cases, been erected. 
As this practice increases the possibility of selling a few spreaders in 
South Africa will become greater. 



V. TRADE METHODS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

The distribution or sale of farm implements and machinery in 
South Africa, generally speaking, is carried out on lines similar to 
those followed in the United States. The importers, so far as they 
can, sell to the country dealers on some mutually agreed terms of 
sale, giving them ordinarily a discount of 15 per cent from the net 
catalogue prices, for invoices to be paid in three or four months, 
as may be agreed upon. A 5 per cent extra is allowed when they 
pay cash in 30 da3^s. When goods are sold through dealers, im- 
porters often reserve the right to sell directly to farmers in their 
territory, but in general, when this is done, a commission on such 
sales is paid to the dealer. While implement dealers are found in 
the principal agricultural sections of South Africa, importers often 
find it necessary to sell directly to farmers. 

Farmers in South Africa usually take a good deal of time to pay 
for their purchases of farm machinery, but on the whole the situa- 
tion there is at least as satisfactory as in the United States. 

South African importers of farm machinery deserve commenda- 
tion for the satisfactory manner in which the business is conducted, 
the more so when one considers the difficulties they are often called 
upon to meet. The South African firms in this trade are well man- 
aged and quick to respond and cooperate in the carrying out of any 
trade-promotion undertakings. The most practicable way for 
American manufacturers to do business in South Africa is to deal 
with them. The trade is not yet large enough, and the number of 
implement dealers is altogether too small, to justify any other means 
of selling farm machinery in South Africa. 

It is generall^T^ assumed that three or four importers do from 75 
to 80 per cent of the business in farm machinery. Besides these, 
however, there are a number of firms doing a limited trade. Condi- 
tions are such that the smaller importer may easily grow in impor- 
tance when supplied with the right kind of goods and given the 
proper backing by manufacturers. The unsuitability of the lines 
they handle is the chief handicap operating against their expansion. 
There is no room in South Africa at present for any more importers 
nor, it may be said, for American manufacturers new in that busi- 
ness, unless they intend to give very particular attention to the re- 
quirements of the country. Those who decide to do so, however, 
will find that South Africa offers a relatively attractive and profit- 
able business field. 

CATALOGUES AND CORRESPONDENCE. 

It is important to take into account that the South African firms 
interested in the importation of agricultural machinery and imple- 
ments are generally of high standing and figure among the largest 
160 



MAKKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 161 

concerns doing business in the country, even though their business 
in implements may be small. They are always to be considered in the 
class of jobbers and not in that of retail dealers. It is evident, there- 
fore, that in soliciting the patronage of silch firms strictly high-class 
business methods should be employed. 

American manufacturers who are new in the South African trade 
may use catalogues and correspondence to advantage to ascertain 
the possibility of interesting importers in their goods. Catalogues in 
English will serve for this purpose. To be fully effective, they 
should contain straightforward descriptions and clear illustrations of 
the machines. Specifications of the principal parts, indicating the 
materials of which they are made, the sizes in which they can be fur- 
nished, and net weights, should also be given. Cubic measurements, 
the gross weights of the machines boxed for ocean transportation, and 
the number of machines packed in each box are very essential details. 
It will be advantageous to include in the catalogue or price list code 
words for cabling purposes, for each type and size of machine. Prices 
f . o. b. steamer New York should either be set forth in the catalogue 
or given separately. It is most important that the catalogue and price 
list contain all necessary information, so that the importer may not 
be deterred from ordering by reason of the absence of some essential 
data. It will be found advisable to write a letter, by the same mail 
in which the catalogues are forwarded, giving all necessary informa- 
tion of a confidential nature, such as discounts, terms of sale and 
payments, etc. 

In writing follow-up letters, after the catalogues have been sent, 
sujficient time should be allowed to give the importer an opportunity 
to acknowledge receipt of the previous letter. In normal times, 90 
days should be reckoned as necessary to obtain a reply from South 
Africa. The character of the firms to which follow-up letters are 
addressed should not be ignored. The sensational type of follow-up 
letter, even if it has often proved successful with farmers and small 
dealers in this country, is not likely to be the best to write to South 
African importers. As a rule the concise, courteous, well-constructed, 
and convincing business letter that one up-to-date business man sends 
to another will prove most effective. It is difficult to account for 
the fact, but it is nevertheless true that many persons in South 
Africa are inclined to believe that some American firms make ex- 
travagant and exaggerated claims in offering their goods. The best 
way to overcome this impression is to adopt a straightforward 
style of business English, with letters and catalogues containing all 
the essential information that the recipient must have to consider 
intelligently the proposition embodied therein. 

It has often been found that price lists and catalogues did not 
correspond with each other, and as a consequence the foreign buyer 
has had a good deal of difficulty in finding out the price of ma- 
chines in which he was interested. The question has often been 
asked why prices can not be given in the catalogue itself, instead of 
issuing separate price lists, the more so as it is customary in the im- 
plement trade to cover all prices with discounts ranging from 20 to 
50 per cent. While there may be some argument against doing this 
in the domestic trade, the fact that the importer resides many 
thousand miles away from the manufacturers, and that he handles 

1276°— 17— No. 146 11 



162 AGEICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

implements as a side line, should suggest the advisability of sending 
catalogues with the prices printed in them. The more easily he can 
obtain the information he requires the greater his interest in the 
business will be. Whenever a catalogue makes any reference to at- 
tachments with which a machine can be equipped their prices also 
should be clearly given, as well as net and gross weights and cubic 
measurements. 

It is not recommended, as a means of creating a demand in South 
Africa, that manufacturers should send catalogues or circulars direct 
to farmers. The only satisfactory Avay for American manufacturers 
of implements to sell their goods in that country at this time is to 
take advantage of the selling organization possessed by importers 
and merchants. Even if some sales were made as a result of sending 
catalogues and letters direct to farmers, an all-around satisfactory 
business could not be created, because of the difficulties that the pur- 
chasers would experience in obtaining repair parts and competent 
advice whenever anything went wrong with the machines. 

The manufacturer must always realize that no matter how popular 
and favorably known his goods and his firm may be in the United 
States, in most cases this will not be true in South Africa. In 
his correspondence and catalogues, therefore, he should avoid taking 
anything for granted. The more detailed information he gives, tend- 
ing to prove the good points in his line, and the less he says in an 
abstract way (such as unsupported statements that his goods are 
the best made in the world) the greater the effectiveness of his printed 
matter. 

SALESMEN. 

The use of catalogues and correspondence is by no means recom- 
mended as the most effective way to sell goods in South Africa. 
The best procedure for a manufacturer, whenever he produces suit- 
able goods, is to send a capable representative to that country. Be- 
fore doing so, however, he will be well advised to undertake a careful 
campaign, with the aid of correspondence and catalogues, to make 
the South African importers well acquainted with his name and his 
goods. In this connection every effort should be made to ascertain 
what interest his goods have created. This will assist the represent- 
ative very greatly when he personally calls on the trade. 

The time is past when the only equipment of an implement sales- 
man endeavoring to get business in South Africa consisted of a 
catalogue describing and illustrating the goods he was selling. 
South African importers will require to inspect a sample machine 
before giving an order of importance. From a trade-building view- 
point, when an agency is established solely with the aid of cata- 
logues the salesman is at a great disadvantage as compared with the 
salesman working with sample machines. In the latter case, the 
salesman has an opportunity to point out fully and effectively the 
advantages of his line, and this knowledge will enable the importer 
thenceforth to offer the goods to his trade in the most practical 
and persuasive way. When the salesman is not in a position to 
describe the features of his goods to the importer with a sample 
machine before him, either in the office or in the field, the importer 
will have to become conversant with the selling features of the 
goods as best he may when the implements are received, without the 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 163 

assistance of the factory salesman to indicate the particular points 
of superiority and advantage that the goods may have. To pro- 
vide the salesman with sample machines will inspire the importer 
with the belief that the manufacturer has complete faith in the 
goods; otherwise he would not incur the expense that this involves. 
In a great many instances this belief will be conducive to the suc- 
cess of the sale. 

Manufacturers who have already shipped goods to South Africa, 
but desire to increase their business by sending a representative to 
that country, need not, ordinarily, provide him with samples, since 
it should be quite expedient for him to obtain one of his machines 
there in case of necessitj^ It is obvious that samples of an entire 
line need not necessarily be carried. What is required is several 
representative machines, showing general quality and workman- 
ship. 

In addition to sufficient abilit}^ and experience to consummate a 
deal, including the securing of the order and the drafting of a con- 
tract stipulating the basis upon which an agency is established, the 
salesman should possess the necessary knowledge to thoroughly in- 
struct the buyers, and those persons in their staff who will have to 
do with the sale of his goods, concerning the construction, operation, 
adjustments, and selling features of the machines sold. The number 
of houses in South Africa exclusively devoted to the sale of farm 
machinery may possibly be counted on the fingers of one hand. A 
larger number of firms handle many other lines besides implements, 
although they maintain a separate department for their sale. In a 
good many cases, however, no pretense is made of having, either at 
headquarters or among the field sales force, men who know very 
much regarding farm machinery in particular. It is evident, there- 
fore, that the manufacturer who desires to build up properl}^ a profit- 
able and increasing business will find it to his advantage to cooperate 
with his agents in South Africa by giving them all possible assist- 
ance in the effective and aggressive selling of their goods. The man- 
ufacturer's representative on the ground is the person best qualified 
to do this work. As frequently as possible he should give field demon- 
strations, so that his agents' salesmen and dealers may become con- 
versant with the merits of the machines as brought out by actual op- 
eration. Nothing has ever stimulated so much the demand for im- 
plements as the field demonstrations given by representatives of 
American and Canadian firms when implements were first beginning 
to be sold in South Africa. 

The remark has often been heard that the salesman who will take 
his coat off to show how an implement works loses the respect of the 
trade as a business man. The writer ventures to assert that the con- 
trary will be true in almost every case. 

The success or failure of any manufacturer attempting to create a 
market for his goods in South Africa hinges chiefly on the character 
of the representative he sends to sell his goods and otherwise to 
foster a demand for them. The first essential is that he should en- 
joy the full confidence of his principals and have full authority to 
agree to make such changes as may be indispensable in the adaptation 
of the goods to the requirements of the trade. Confidence in the sales- 
man's good judgment in this respect should be such that whatever 
recommendations he makes will be strictly adhered to. A salesman 



164 AGRICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY. 

should be endowed with an agreeable personality, a dignified bear- 
ing, and the ability to discuss matters with the heads of large firms. 
He should be aggressive and enthusiastic, as a great deal depends 
on his arousing the interest of the chiefs and staff of the firms that 
he may visit. He should also be prepared to meet in a social way 
those with whom he transacts business. As a rule, social contact and 
intercourse is far more important in the transaction of business in 
South Africa than it is in the United States. No man should be 
selected as a representative in South Africa whose employer does not 
consider it a pleasure to entertain him at his own home. A salesman 
operating in South Africa must also be aware that business is not 
transacted there as rapidly as in the United States. A certain amount 
of acquaintance is necessary before business will be seriously con- 
sidered. 

When representatives have succeeded in placing their goods with 
a large firm having several branches, they should call at these 
branches and spend an adequate amount of time establishing ties of 
friendship and acquaintance with their managers, informing these, 
at the same time, of the selling features and working advantages of 
the goods. This thoughtfulness on the part of the representative will 
often be highly appreciated, and not only will much good will be 
created but the interest of the branch and its manager in the sale of 
the line will be greatly stimulated. 

The private and personal expenses of a salesman operating in 
South Africa will be a great deal higher than in the United States. 
The chief reason for this is that all articles which he will require to 
purchase from time to time have to be imported from overseas. This 
fact should be taken into account when arranging the matter of sal- 
ary. Consideration should also be given to the fact that the salesman 
sent to South Africa will feel (at least after a while) that he is deny- 
ing himself a good many of the comforts and advantages, making for 
personal contentment, that he enjoyed in his own country. It is 
difficult to suggest on what basis the question of salary should be ad- 
justed, but the advisability of properly compensating the salesman 
will be readily apparent. 

EXPENSE ALLOWANCES. 

Traveling expenses in South Africa, in themselves, are not greater 
than those incurred when visiting the larger cities of the United 
States. On the other hand, outfitting of all kinds, laundry work and 
pressing of clothing, comforts and amusements, and the expenses in- 
volved in any sort of social entertainment (which occur very fre- 
quently when a man is temporarily living in South Africa and resid- 
ing at hotels or clubs) , form, in the aggregate, an expense of consid- 
erable importance. In addition to hotel charges and gratuities, the 
representative of an American firm should be given reasonable lati- 
tude to move about without the feeling that, in addition to traveling 
in a country that lacks the comforts of his home and the attractions 
of a highly developed country like the United States, he will com- 
plete his work at a greater expense to himself than if he had operated 
in the United States. Ordinarily an allowance averaging about $2.50 
per day should be granted for petty and incidental expenses, with 



MAEKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 165 

authority to exceed this allowance when necessary in the best interest 
of the business. 

The hotels in South Africa are fairly satisfactory and are improv- 
ing from year to year. In the larger cities they are quite comfortable. 
If the small towns are visited, the traveler will often be compelled to 
put up with less modern accommodations. In the larger cities the 
hotel rates vary from $4 to $5 per day, American plan, to which a 
suitable sum for gi*atuities must be added. 

TENTATIVE ROUTES. 

Assuming that representatives of American firms visiting South 
Africa will enter the country via Cape Town, the following cities 
can be visited in the order given: Cape Town, Mossel Bay, Oudt- 
shoorn, Port Elizabeth, East London, and Durban. All these cities 
can be reached from Cape Town by rail without making any great 
detours, and by steamer as well. From Durban the traveler can 
proceed by rail to Pietermaritzburg, Bloemfontein, Johannesburg, 
and Pretoria. There are a few other cities in the Union that in some 
cases a salesman will find it to his advantage to visit. Most impor- 
tant among these are Malmesbury, reached by rail from Cape Town ; 
Grahamstown, reached by rail from Port Elizabeth ; Queenstown and 
King Williams Town, reached by rail from East London ; Kimberley,^ 
reached by rail from Bloemfontein. 

The demand for farm machinery in Ehodesia has not so far become 
important enough to justify the inclusion of that country in the 
regular route of a farm-machinery salesman. It is rather suggested 
that before or immediately after a salesman arrives at Cape Town 
he should write the importers and merchants of Rhodesia with a 
view to ascertaining what chances there may be for him to do busi- 
ness. If it is decided to visit Rhodesia, the best plan is to go from 
Johannesburg to Bulawayo by rail and thence to Salisbury. When 
this is done the return trip can be advantageously made via Beira 
and Lourengo Marques. It is suggested that, so far as possible, the 
cities situated on the east coast of South Africa be visited during 
the winter (April to September), as Durban, Lourengo Marques, and 
Beira are very hot during the summer. 

From six to eight months should be reckoned as the amount of time 
necessary to cover South Africa properly, although, naturally, a 
great deal depends on the particular lines handled and the class of 
connections desired. 

The selling of goods in South Africa invariably involves the estab- 
lishment of agencies. The utmost care should be exercised in de- 
ciding what agency territories should be given to the firms from 
which orders have been secured. There are several importers in 
South Africa who have very extensive connections throughout the 
country, and it might prove difficult to interest these concerns in a 
line when the representative has given to another firm the agency for 
some section of the country that they themselves can properly cover. 
Several representatives of American firms have found it very diffi- 
cult to make definite arrangements concerning agencies and terri- 

1 Ordinarily only the traveler selling windmills and gas engines should include Kim- 
berley in his regular route. 



166 AGKICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

tories the first time they visited the cities in which importers of this 
class of goods are located. They have found it advantageous to pay 
a second visit to the principal South African cities — after the country 
had been once thoroughly covered and a full grasp of the situation 
obtained — for the purpose of definitely arranging the question of ter- 
ritory to be granted to each agent. 

DIRECT AND CONTINUOUS REPRESENTATION. 

Owing to the fact that few firms in South Africa specialize in the 
sale of farm machinery to anything like the extent that prevails in 
the United States, the most desirable way for a manufacturer to 
create a satisfactory and profitable trade for his goods, and to insure 
its maximum developrnxent, is to maintain direct and continuous rep- 
resentation in that country. 

This plan, however, has the disadvantage of being too expensive for 
the average manufacturer. There are perhaps only six or eight firms 
In the United States that would be justified in being so represented. 
To overcome this difficulty, manufacturers of noncompetitive lines 
could combine for the purpose of sending a man to South Africa to 
represent them, collectively, on the basis suggested. 

There are several persons in South Africa in a position to represent 
farm-machinery manufacturers on a commission basis. Such men, 
however, with few exceptions, have now all the representations that 
they can or care to handle. The question as to what commission they 
should be paid has often caused much misunderstanding. After a 
careful consideration of all factors involved, it is felt that a com- 
mission lower than 10 per cent on the net invoice value of the goods, 
f . o. b. New York, would be inadequate. The trade is not sufficiently 
large, the demand for particular lines not great enough, and the ex- 
pense of operating in South Africa too high to justify a capable man 
in working for a smaller remuneration. 

The futility of sending a representative to South Africa every two 
or three years for four or six months has been frequently proved. 
There are a number of manufacturers in the United States whose 
experience will cause them to agree to the truth of this statement. 
Several cases are known in which salesmen made visits to South 
Africa and obtained orders from importers; the machines thus sold 
arrived in due course after the salesmen had left the country, but some 
little difficulty experienced by the importer in having the machines 
properly erected, or in stating what they could do, or in overcoming 
some unimportant trouble in working them, so discouraged him that 
he took but little further interest in creating a demand for them. 
Resident representatives have proved so efficacious in preventing such 
occurrences that their presence has greatly impaired the success of 
manufacturers who only send representatives to South Africa on 
periodical visits. 

Besides being better able to sell his goods to the importers, a resi- 
dent representative can do much toward their sale and distribution 
among dealers and farmers. He can assist in a great many other 
ways. He can join his agent's salesmen in trips throughout the 
country, visiting the larger dealers. This will serve two pur- 
poses — to educate the salesman as to the most effective means of sell- 
ing the goods and to gratify the dealer called upon by making him 



MARKETS IIST SOUTH AFRICA. 167 

feel that his business is considered of enough importance to warrant 
a visit by a representative of the manufacturer. With the coopera- 
tion of a resident representative the importer will easily be encour- 
aged to undertake energetic sales campaigns and to demonstrate the 
goods in suitable farming centers. Most important of all, however, 
is the fact that the importer is able quickly to communicate any diffi- 
culties to some one who is able to advise him or to rectify such 
difficulties without the delay that is involved when such matters are 
taken up by correspondence with the manufacturer abroad. The 
fact that the trade in this class of goods has not yet reached very 
great proportions in South Africa makes it much more desirable to 
assist the importer in this way than if the demand for farm 
machinery were larger and better established. 

One of the anomalies of the implement business in South Africa 
heretofore has been that importers have changed their lines very 
often. In a great majority of cases, if the manufacturer had had a 
representative on the ground, this would not have happened, and the 
resulting dissatisfaction would have been avoided. Such occurrences 
cause at times important losses to those concerned. The importer in 
such instances often finds himself with a stock of machines and 
repairs that must be sold quickly, and consequently at a disadvan- 
tage, if a new agency is immediately taken up. The manufacturer, 
on his part, has to wait until he can send a representative to the 
country before his goods will again be sold there. It is difficult to 
account for this frequent changing of agencies, but every effort should 
be made to remove the conditions that cause them, because this tend- 
ency to a great extent has discouraged interest and effort in connec- 
tion with the sale of agricultural implements. If trade conditions 
in general can be put on a better plan, the demand, on this account 
alone, will be greatly enhanced. When an importer feels that he is 
,going to handle a line permanently, and that he has the support of a 
resident representative, he will assuredly undertake the work with 
greater faith and interest than if the reverse is the case. 

Since the eastern sections of the Union of South Africa are con- 
sidered the most promising and the richest from an agricultural 
standpoint, it is suggested that Durban be selected as the head- 
quarters of the resident representative of American firms. The prin- 
cipal farm-machinery distributing centers of South Africa can be 
reached more easily from Durban than from any other South African 
city. 

AGENCIES. 

In South Africa an agent is generally understood to be a person or 
firm buying goods on own account, but allowed exclusive selling 
rights for a given territory. There are several firms in that country 
to which the agency for fairly large portions of the country could 
properly be given. The number and character of the branch houses 
operated by a firm desiring a large territory should give the manu- 
facturer an idea of the territory the importer could adequately handle. 

For trade purposes South Africa can be divided into the following 
territories: First, Cape Town, including the southwestern part of 
Cape Province; second, Mossell Bay and Oudtshoorn; third. Port 
Elizabeth; fourth. East London; fifth, Durban; sixth, Lourenco Mar- 
ques and eastern Transvaal; seventh, Johannesburg; eighth, Bloem- 



168 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

fontein; ninth, Kimberley; tenth, Bulawayo; eleventh, Salisbury; 
twelfth, Beira. The demarcation of the territories properly belong- 
ing to these different trade centers has become quite well established 
in recent years. Railway communications and rates of freight be- 
tween various points have been largely instrumental in bringing this 
about. Representatives will generally find little encroachment, on 
the part of South African firms, into each other's territory. 

BRANCH HOUSES. 

The trade in agricultural machinery and implements in South 
Africa is not now of sufficient importance, nor likely to become so 
in the next few years, to justify the establishment by American 
firms of their own branches. 

Where it is desired to maintain a resident representative in that 
country and to provide him with a suitable office and a competent 
stenographer, a monthly expenditure of approximately $50 for the 
former item and $75 for the latter will be necessary, in addition to 
about $25 for postage, telegrams, etc. It might not be necessary, 
in all cases, for a resident representative to maintain an office in 
South Africa — the more so since one of the chief reasons for keeping 
him there continuously is that he may be in close touch with his 
agents at all times, a condition that can only be brought about by 
visiting them at least three times in the course of a year. When a 
large business is transacted, however, it may be advisable to maintain 
an office and a stenographer so that the manufacturer's agents may 
be assured of constant and quick communication with his represent- 
ative. 

POSTAGE TO SOUTH AFRICA. 

Particular care should be taken to prevent the sending of mail 
matter to South Africa with insufficient postage. This matter has 
repeatedly been brought to the attention of manufacturers, but ap- 
parently a good many of them have not yet taken adequate steps to 
remedy the condition. Postage on first-class matter is 5 cents for the 
first ounce and 3 cents for every additional ounce. Complaints in 
this connection were heard from several sources in the course of the 
writer's investigation, and he personally received a number of im- 
properly stamped letters from American firms while he was in South 
Africa. That room for improvement exists is evidenced by the fact 
that a short time ago the Cape Town Chamber of Commerce passed a 
resolution suggesting that its members mention this matter to Ameri- 
can manufacturers when corresponding with them. 

PACKING. 

It is gratifying to report that in the majority of instances South 
African importers expressed their satisfaction with the way farm 
machinery is packed by American manufacturers. Complaints were 
heard only in a few cases, to the effect that the cubic measurement 
of the boxes had not been sufficiently reduced. A shipment of gas- 
engine trucks, which had been completely boxed, was reported in this 
connection. This complaint was fully justified, for such parts as 
solid steel wheels and I beams, as used in trucks of this character, are 



MARKETS I IT SOUTH AFRICA. 169 

large and strong enough to be shipped without any boxing whatever. 
The front wheels of these trucks, furthermore, were pjicked in a 
box wdth the rear wheels. Since the former are of much smaller 
diameter, it follows that a great deal of unused space remained in 
the box, for which freight had to be paid. Common sense needs to 
be exercised by manufacturers in packing goods of this character. 
When a machine has large and strong parts, such as enter into the 
construction of a truck, these should not be packed at all, for it is 
obvious that only in exceptional circumstances can such goods be 
damaged in transit. By sending such parts without boxing a good 
saving is effected. The cost of the lumber and labor of packing is 
eliminated, and the cubic measurement of the shipment is greatly 
reduced. 

In the packing of farm machines for export, which involves knock- 
ing them down as much as possible, every precaution should be taken 
to insure that they will be properly put together when received. 
When it is felt that some difficult}^ is likely to occur, numbers or 
other marks should be stenciled so as to indicate where certain parts 
belong. Lines should also be stenciled across two or more parts 
when it is important that such parts be finely lined up. If more than 
one machine is packed in a box, and it is advisable, for some reason, 
to build up the machines again without mixing the parts of one 
machine with another, the parts of each machine should be uniformly 
numbered or marked. 

It is very important for manufacturers to follow without deviation 
the instructions given by importers regarding the outside marking 
of the cases. It must be remembered that native labor onl}^ is used 
in unloading ships in South Africa. The natives are almost invari- 
ably unable to read or write, so they depend on the particular shape 
and make-up of the shipping mark to ascertain the consignee and 
destination of the goods unloaded. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR SETTING UP AND OPERATING IMPLExMENTS. 

Instructions for setting up and operating implements should always 
be supplied with every machine. It is important that they contain 
adequate illustrations to insure proper setting up, satisfactory opera- 
tion, and the intelligent making of all adjustments of which the 
machines are susceptible. The manufacturers should feel that if 
their agents in South Africa indicate the necessity of instructions in 
the Dutch language it is their duty to supply them. As the trade 
develops it may be to the interest of all concerned to suppl}^ such 
instructions in both English and Dutch. This may easily prove a 
stimulus toward the more extensive use of farm machinery. Much 
machinery has gone to the scrap pile in South Africa because of the 
lack or unsuitability of instructions for setting up, operating, and 
adjusting farm machines shipped to that country. 

REPAIR-PART LISTS. 

Repair-part lists should be included, without prices, with every 
machine. It is most important that clear illustra.tions of every part 
should, accompany the written description thereof. The illustrations 
should show numbers to correspond with the actual numbers on the 



170 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

parts themselves. South African importers are strongly in favor 
of separate pamphlets containing prices and illustrations of one 
machine only, instead of the voluminous books published by Ameri- 
can manufacturers containing the repair parts for all the machines 
they produce. If clear illustrations of each different part are given 
in the price list it may often be unnecessary to have the price list 
printed in both Dutch and English. An understanding on this 
point, however, should be had between the manufacturer and the 
importer. 

The question of repair parts should be given very careful attention 
by the manufacturer. He should see to it that his agents in South 
Africa are always provided with an ample supply of such parts as 
are liable to be required by reason of possible breakages or wear. 
An adequate supply of repair parts should always be shipped with 
the first lot of machines going to that country. As subsequent orders 
are received, and in the event that the machines should in any way 
be changed, the manufacturer should make certain that a suitable 
number of duplicate parts, new in that machine, are shipped as extras. 

A practice largely followed in South Africa lately, with a view to 
lessening the burden on the importer in the introduction of a new 
line of goods, is for the manufacturer to supply on consignment the 
first lot of repair parts shipped. The most popular arrangement is 
to pay for all parts sold from that consignment at the end of each 
yearly quarter. Such parts as remain unsold 12 or 18 months or 
two years, as may be agreed upon, are paid for in full at that time. 

It has been remarked by several South African importers that 
American manufacturers charge exorbitant prices for repair parts. 
They claim that the manufacturers fail to take into account, espe- 
cially when the goods are paid for cash f. o. b. New York, that 
foreign orders for repairs are generally fairly important and paid 
for without delay. IJnder these circumstances they feel that it is 
not- fair that they should pay the same prices as charged the retail 
dealer in the United States, where the repairs are generally sold in 
very small quantities and paid for, as a general rule, at the end of the 
season. 

A good deal of criticism was heard to the effect that American 
manufacturers change the parts of their machines too often. While 
importers appreciate that these changes generaUy indicate an im- 
i:)rovement in construction, some parts have been changed so fre- 
quently that it is felt that the manufacturers sometimes ship ma- 
chines to the foreign trade with castings and parts still in the 
experimental stage. This should be avoided for many reasons. The 
less often parts are changed, the better. 

INVOICING. 

All invoices for goods shipped to South Africa should be accom- 
panied by a packing list clearly indicating the contents of every box 
separately. All items in the invoice should correspond with those 
in the packing list in such a manner that when the goods are received 
it will be easy to know whether all goods invoiced are included in the 
shipment and the number of cases containing them. Owing to the 
fact that no duty is paid on the railway freight from factory to port 
of ocean shipment, nor on the value of the boxes, it is important that 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 171 

a statement be made on the face of the invoice as to the amount 
paid for freight from factory to seaport and the cost of material 
and labor in packing the goods. All invoices covering goods shipped 
to South Africa should contain a signed statement like the fol- 
lowing (this has been accepted as correct by the South African cus- 
toms authorities) : 

This invoice is true and correct, and the prices shown thereon are equal to 
or slightly in excess of prices governing for similar goods sold in like quantities 
in the United States of America. 

SHIPPING. 

The bulk of the implements exported by American manufacturers 
to South Africa are shipped through New York commission and 
export houses. The latter are fully competent to ship the goods prop- 
erly. In some instances, however, shipments are made direct by the 
manufacturer to the importer, often by means of a New York ship- 
ping agency. South African importers complain that when this is 
the case a lack of attention on the part of the manufacturers is often 
noticeable. They claim that in most cases the manufacturers seem 
to feel that their responsibility in connection with the goods ceases 
when they have left the f actor}^ It is evident that, to insure lasting 
and satisfactory connections, the manufacturer should have the in- 
terest of his customer as much at heart as his own. Consequently it 
is felt that it is his duty and to his advantage to make ever^/ effort to 
have his shipments for South African firms forwarded from New 
York by the most expeditious and economical means possible. 

CUSTOMS DUTIES. 

British South Africa, which includes the Union of South Africa 
and Rhodesia, has a uniform customs tariff. Farm machinery and 
implements of all kinds pay a duty of 3 per cent ad valorem. Car- 
riages, carts, and wagons, and finished parts thereof pay a duty of 
25 per cent ad valorem. Parts of carriages, wagons, etc., not made in 
South Africa, pay a duty of 3 per cent. A rebate of 3 per cent is 
granted to goods manufactured in the United Kingdom and recip- 
rocating British colonies. 

In Portuguese East Africa 1 per cent duty ad valorem is paid on 
farm machinery imported into the districts of Lourenco Marques, 
Inhambane, and Mozambique. No duty is paid on those imported 
into the districts of Quelimane and Tete. Free entry is given to farm 
machinery imported into the Mozambique Company's territory. 

Care should be exercised in invoicing all classes of agricultural im- 
plements and machinery for South Africa, to make it as clear as 
possible that they are machines for agricultural work. A Cape Town 
importer recently had some difficulty in passing through the customs 
a shipment of gas-engine trucks from the United States at the rate 
of duty of 3 per cent, which such goods were supposed to pay, be- 
cause the manner in which the invoice was written made it possible 
to consider such goods as in the class of carriages, wagons, etc., which 
pay a duty of 25 per cent. As a rule, however. South Africa's cus- 
toms authorities create no difficulties in properly adjusting cases of 
this kind. 



172 AGEICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEKY. 

Catalogues, price lists, and similar printed matter, when addressed 
to importers, merchants, manufacturers, public libraries, and similar 
institutions, enter the country free of duty. Twenty-five per cent 
or 3d. (6 cents) per pound, whichever is greater, is chargeable as 
duty on printed matter when mailed direct to farmers or persons 
not in the categories above indicated. When a large supply of one 
kind of such printed matter is shipped to any one in South Africa 
25 per cent duty is assessed. 

METHODS OF PAYMENT. 

Heretofore American manufacturers have, as a rule, been paid for 
their shipments to firms in South Africa through commission houses 
or banks in New York. In a few cases payment has been effected by 
means of a sight draft vv^ith ocean bill of lading attached, drawn on 
the London office, or the agents there, of South African firms. In 
others, payment has been made by sight draft, with bill of lading 
attached, on the importer himself. Implements have also been ship- 
ped by American manufacturers, in a few instances, to be paid on a 
90 days' sight draft, to be accepted upon delivery of bill of lading. 

Because of the numerous branches of New York export and com- 
mission houses in South Africa and the fact that the three largest 
banks of that country maintain agencies or their own branches in 
New York, the financing of shipments to South Africa does not ordi- 
narily offer any difficulties. 

The insistence of American firms on pa^^ment f . o. b. New York is 
considered by South African firms as distinctly unfair. They claim 
this arrangement to be too one-sided. It places the entire burden 
upon the importer, implying, also, that he inspires no confidence as 
to his solvency and fairness. It is not right, they feel, that they 
should be called upon to pay money for goods before the shipments 
have been proved to be up to sample or specifications. They have to 
i rust the manufacturers implicitly, while the latter do not in any way 
reciprocate that trust. Business is undoubtedly a matter of give and 
take. The seller is as eager and as much in need to sell as the pur- 
chaser to buy. One can not do without the other. A logical, fair, 
and mutually satisfactory compromise should consequently be ar- 
rived at in the matter of terms of payment. Payments f. o. b. New 
York, however, are actually accepted by South African importers 
and, fortunately, their financial resources generally permit them to 
meet such terms without any difficulty. Few importers will be handi- 
capped on this account. 

Generally speaking, American implements have been found better 
suited to the conditions prevailing in South Africa than those made 
in other countries, and it can not be said that American trade has 
suffered to any extent on account of our strict terms of payment. It 
is probable, however, that if manufacturers of other countries should 
some time become able to supply the South African trade with goods 
similar in quality and price to those shipped by American manufac- 
turers, the lack of confidence expressed heretofore by American firms 
will be taken into account and their business will suffer greatly as a 
consequence. 

English firms, in the great majority of cases, supply their South 
African agents with goods on open account. At the end of every 



MAEKETS IN SOUTH AFBICA. 173 

yearly quarter a draft is made at 90 or 180 days, covering the in- 
voices rendered during that quarter. This is then forwarded to 
South Africa for acceptance and payment. As can be seen, this ar- 
rangement provides for a credit of from three to nine months. It 
has been difficult to ascertain the exact terms upon which German 
manufacturers have sold to their South African agents, but every- 
thing points to the fact that they have at least been as liberal as 
English manufacturers in this regard. The same can be said of 
Swedish manufacturers. 

CREDITS. 

The South African firms engaged in the importation and sale of 
farm machinery enjoy, as a whole, a very satisfactory financial posi- 
tion. In many cases they are very wealthy and have been estab- 
lished for many years. The fact that they are interested in many 
other lines besides farm machiner}^ improves their financial stability. 
In the event of droughts or some other rural disability, they have 
other lines of business to fall back upon. This permits them to with- 
stand, without financial embarrassment, a period of depressed agri- 
cultural conditions. All these firms, more or less extensively^, supply 
the requirements of the large population engaged in mining, which 
insures them a continuous, stable, and profitable business. 

Requests from these firms for terms of payment other than cash 
f. o. b. New York deserve careful consideration, and in most cases a 
logical view of the situation will cause these requests to be granted. 
In most cases when better terms of payment are asked this is done 
to facilitate a greater turnover in the sale of implements. This is 
important to the manufacturer. South African importers, in re- 
ferring to the question of more liberal terms of pa3'ment, have indi- 
cated their willingness to pa}- an adequate rate of interest for the 
period the credit is given. 

Whenever the question of extending credit comes up reports should 
be obtained in order to consider properly the advisability of doing so 
or otherwise. The facilities for obtaining such information are 
ample. Business organizations, banks, and commercial agencies exist 
that are exceptionally well equipped to supply information to enable 
the manufacturer to come to an intelligent decision. 

Three South African banks, all of which have branches in every 
city, town, and hamlet of South Africa, have either their own offices 
or agencies in New York. When necessary these banks will gladly 
supply to American manufacturers credit information concerning 
South African firms. The reports furnished by these banks are 
generally quite brief, but they nevertheless will be found useful and 
as accurate as possible. It would not be proper to abuse the courtesies 
extended by these banks in this connection, but whenever various 
opinions are desired regarding the financial standing of a South 
African firm these banks can be addressed without hesitation. 

ADVERTISING. 

South African importers expect the manufacturers to furnish 
them, free of charge, suitable quantities of catalogues and circulars, 
as well as electrotypes for newspapers and catalogues. American 
manufacturers often fail to supply the right kind of electrotypes. 



174 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

Importers claim that electros from wood cuts — "line electros," as 
they are generally called in South Africa— are frequently difficult to 
obtain from the manufacturer. Because of the inferior quality of 
paper used in South African newspapers it is essential that line or 
wood-cut electrotypes be used instead of halftone cuts. Owing to 
the various uses made of electrotypes of all kinds American manu- 
facturers should be ready to supply these in the 1, 2, and 3 column 
sizes when they are requested. 

Lithographed or tin posters illustrating implements in colors are 
very much appreciated by South African firms. They understand, 
however, that if the manufacturer does not produce such posters for 
his regular trade they can not be made especially for them except at 
great cost. 

So far the necessity for American manufacturers to supply special 
catalogues in both English and Dutch for distribution among farm- 
ers has not arisen. The large firms selling implements in South 
Africa publish their own catalogues, which are often printed sepa- 
rately in both these languages. It should be remembered that the 
Dutch spoken in South Africa is a corruption of the Dutch spoken 
in Holland. 

In connection with this question of language it may be noted that 
on the coast and in all the large towns the English language is gen- 
erally spoken. On a large majority of the farms and in the country 
districts the Cape Dutch or Taal holds its own as the language of 
the people. In the western portions of Cape Province and in the 
country districts of the Orange Free State and Transvaal the people 
are mostly Dutch. In the eastern districts of Cape Province the 
influx of English settlers has turned the scale and English is chiefly 
used, even among the farmers. In Natal, Dutch is seldom used. All 
Government publications and notices are published in both lan- 
guages, either of which may be used by the members of the legislature 
and senate at their sittings. English, however, has remained the 
business language almost exclusively. 

It is well understood in South Africa that the prices at which 
American manufacturers sell their goods do not permit them to 
make any contributions toward local advertising. The importers 
know that such local advertising is entirely for their own account. 
When a manufacturer has succeeded in establishing a fairly large 
number of agencies throughout the country, however, he has often 
found it to his advantage to advertise his goods for his own account 
in one or two of the more popular agricultural journals of the 
country. The names of the various agents the manufacturer has in 
South Africa are shown at the bottom of the advertisements, when 
this is done. The demand for the manufacturer's goods has fre- 
quently been stimulated by such action, and it has invariably induced 
the importers to take a greater interest in selling them. In some 
instances the manufacturer has paid one-half the cost of such adver- 
tisements and the various agents have prorated the remainder among 
themselves. 

For a manufacturer to attempt to reach South African merchants 
by advertising in the agricultural publications of that country is 
considered ineffective. Correspondence and the sending of cata- 
logues to the importers would be a far more effective and economical 
means of interesting them. Whenever a manufacturer undertakes 
advertising in South Africa on his own account, he should remember 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 175 

that conditions there are different from those prevailing in the 
United States. A tractor manufacturer recently advertised his goods 
in that country, the copy containing such phrases as " 3-plow and 
10-plow tractors." This would be misleading in South Africa. 
Such tractors could not pull in that country the same number of 
plows as in the United States. 

WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND CURRENCY. 

The weights and measures used in the United States are prevalent 
in South Africa, but Dutch measures for land and bulk predominate. 
These are : 

1 morgen= 2.11654 acres. 

1 muid of wheat, maize, peas, or beans=200 pounds. 

1 muid of oats or potatoes =150 pounds. 

1 muid of barley =160 pounds. 

1 muid of onions=120 pounds. 

1 muid of groundnuts=100 pounds. 

The coinage in use throughout the Union of South Africa is the 
same as that of Great Britain. 

RAILWAY AND STEAMSHIP FACILITIES. 

The Union of South Africa is well provided with railway facili- 
ties. The total mileage of railways worked by the administration at 
the end of 1914 was 8,501 miles, and it is gradually being extended. 
During the year 1912, the latest for which audited figures are avail- 
able, 41,450,491 passengers and 11,747,598 tons of freight were car- 
ried over the various lines. Virtually the entire system is owned 
and operated by the Government, and the net profits in 1912 
amounted to nearly $10,000,000. The main lines are those between 
Johannesburg and Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban, Johan- 
nesburg and Port Elizabeth and East London, Port Elizabeth and 
Cape Town, and the lines running to the border of Portuguese East 
Africa and to Rhodesia. Numerous short lines connect nearly all the 
important cities and towns of the Union. The service is good, and 
the trains are comfortable and run at a fairly good speed. Corridor 
compartment cars are in general use, and on the through lines the 
seats are made into beds at night, the only charge made being that 
for the bedding — 2s. 6d. (about 60 cents). The shortest time be- 
tween Cape Town and Johannesburg, a distance of nearly 1,000 
miles, is 37^ hours; between Johannesburg and Durban, 482 miles, 
23^ hours; between Johannesburg and Port Elizabeth, 712 miles, 34 
hours; between Johannesburg and Lourenco Marques, 394 miles, 19 
hours. The passenger fares for single journeys over short distances 
are 4, 2.66, and 2 cents for first, second, and third class, respectively, 
per mile; over long distances the corresponding rates are 2.7, 1.8, and 
1.5 cents per mile. For the future, it is recognized that the railways 
are to be worked for the furtherance of trade and intercommunica- 
tion, and not for profit making. 

In traveling from one South African seaport to another use can 
be made of the frequent steamer sailings available, but, in order to 
become as intimately acquainted with the country as possible, travel- 
ing by rail is recommended. 

The farming community is particularly favored in the matter of 
freight rates. Figures officially quoted show the rates to be from 20 



176 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

to 80 per cent lower than in Australia. Irrespective of the size of the 
shipment, the present rate is figured on the basis of 14 cents per 100 
pounds for a distance of 100 miles. Farm produce is carried at low 
rates. Other inducements are reduced fares for both passengers and 
freight to and from agricultural shows, auction sales of live stock, 
Government experimental farms, for the conveyance of pure-bred 
stock, etc. The Union Castle Line also undertakes to carry free of 
freight charges from England to South Africa all pedigreed stock 
intended for breeding purposes. None of the rivers in the Union of 
South Africa being navigable, there is a complete absence of internal 
transportation facilities by water. 

In pre-war times it was customary for American travelers to go to 
South Africa via Southampton, England. The Union Castle Steam- 
ship Co., contractors to the Imperial and South African Governments 
to carry the mails, dispatched a mail steamer every Saturday and an 
intermediate steamer every week from Southampton for South Af- 
rican ports. Calls were made at Madeira by the mail steamers and 
at the Canary Islands by the intermediate steamers. The next calls 
were made at Cape Town, Mossel Bay, Port Elizabeth, East London, 
and Durban, the intermediate steamers calling also_ at Lourengo 
Marques. The time occupied by the mail steamers in the trip from 
Southampton to Cape Town was 17 days. The rates of passage from 
England to South Africa by these mail steamers, which still prevail 
at this time, were $150 to $220 for first-class passage and $90 to $140 
for second-class passage. Representatives of American firms will 
find it to their benefit to travel first-class because of the opportunity 
thus afforded them to meet prominent South African business men. 
Second-class accommodation, however, is quite comfortable, and often 
preferred for experts and mechanics. A dinner suit is considered an 
indispensable part of the wardrobe of a first-class passenger. 

The Deutsche Ost Afrika Line before the war maintained a fort- 
nightly service from Hamburg, Amsterdam, and Antwerp to South 
Africa. Other important lines engaged in the South African trade 
were the Bucknall Line, Natal Line, and Harrison-Rennie Line from 
London, and the Clan and EUerman-Harrison Lines from Glasgow 
via Liverpool to South African ports. These lines, called the " con- 
ference lines," made a contract in 1912 with nearly all the principal 
importers and shippers of South Africa whereby the owners under- 
took certain obligations as regards uniform freight charges, and the 
importers and shippers agreed to ship all goods by their steamers. 

There were six steamship lines at that time maintaining a direct 
and fairly regular service from New York to Cape Town and other 
South African ports, namely, the Union Castle, Houston, Prince, 
Hansa, Bucknall, and Clan Lines. Each of these dispatched a ship 
every fortnight or every month, as cargo offered. As there was not 
much export trade to the United States, none of the steamers returned 
directly to New York but usually proceeded to India, the Far East, or 
England. The time of passage from New York was usually from 
30 to 35 days. No passengers were carried by the steamers of these 
lines. The rates of freight prevailing in pre-war times on shipments 
from New York were slightly higher than those from England. The 
difference was usually between $0.25 and $1 per ton, seldom exceed- 
ing the latter amount. The rates from Montreal and other Canadian 
ports on the Atlantic seaboard were usually the same as those from 
New York. 



MARKETS IX SOUTH AFRICA. 177 

All the British steamship lines have considerably reduced the num- 
ber of sailings from England to South African ports since the be- 
ginning of the ^var. The Union Castle Line has maintained a fairly 
good service, however, and, with a few exceptions, mail steamers have 
been dispatched every week, although almost invariably these have 
taken a longer time to make the voyage. 

One of the developments arising out of the war has been the in- 
creased number of direct sailings from the United States to South 
Africa, and vice versa, because of the increased American trade with 
the Union. Some of the steamers diverted to this trade possess sat- 
isfactory accommodation for a limited number of passengers, which 
has alwavs been eagerly taken up. It is not impossible that, when 
normal shipping conditions are reestablished, a regular and perma- 
nent service from and to the United States will be established for 
the conveyance of passengers, as well as freight. This would reduce 
about one-half the present cost of the voyage, and would also effect 
a saving in the number of days required for the journey. More- 
over, the expenses occasioned by the change of steamers in England, 
which often involves a sta}^ of seA^eral days in that country, would be- 
come unnecessary. 

FREIGHT RATES DURING THE WAR. 

It is generally well known that the freight rates on goods shipped 
from the United States to South Africa have increased from 400 to 
500 per cent since the beginning of the war. It may surprise some, 
however, to know that the rates from English ports have increased 
only about 60 per cent and that those from Canada in June, 1916, 
were onW about 200 per cent higher. Taking the rates for mixed 
goods, the actual increases compare as follows : The pre-war rates per 
ton of 40 cubic feet were — From England, $9.10 ; from Canada, $9.50; 
and from New York, $9.50. The rates June 30, 1916, were — From 
England, $15.37; from Canada, $25.15; and from New York, $41.90. 
There is not only a very great difference between the New York and 
English rates, but also between the New York and Montreal rates, 
which, as stated, used to be the same in pre-war times. This matter 
was referred to by the president of the Cape Town Chamber of 
Commerce in his address at the annual general meeting of that body, 
on May 15. 1916, as follows: 

An anomaly to which attention should be directed is the difference in freight 
between Canada and Cape Town and the United States and Cape Town. 
Though the distance is abont the same, and the conditions similar, on one class 
of goods there is no less than $15 difference in favor of Canada. For instance, 
the Clan TAUiiout and Aff/Juin Pruice from New York charged $3G plus 15 per 
cent per 40 cubic feet, as compared with the Bcnguella from Canada, which 
sailed some 10 days later than the above steamers and charged $22.50 plus 15 
per cent per 40 cubic feet. 

This has set a very unfavorable precedent indeed, and, unless 
freights are adjusted on the basis of those prevailing before the war, 
American trade in general will suffer a severe hardship, and the 
American exporters of agricultural machinery and implements in 
particular will find it extremely difficult to meet the competition of 
British and Canadian firms, which, from all appearances, are more 
active and aggressive in the South African trade than is perhaps 
the case in that of any other country. 

1276"— 17— No. 146 12 



VI. SOUTH AFRICAN INTERNATIONAL TRADE. 



In considering the foreign trade of the Union of South Africa 
for the past two years the European war and the part played by 
shipping must necessarily be remembered. It would be fruitless to 
attempt any definite, conclusive estimate of the effects that the war, 
the lack of cargo space, and the scarcity of labor and material have 
had upon South African trade. The outstanding feature in the 
trade of that period is the fact that in spite of all these difficulties 
the demand for goods, with few exceptions, has been exceedingly 
well maintained. The table below, prepared from the official trade 
returns, indicates the foreign commerce of the Union, but the fact 
must be kept in mind that no returns are given therein for the ex- 
ports of gold since the war began; these will not be made public 
until the cessation of hostilities. The import figures show that the 
trade of the country is not suffering greatly as a result of present 
conditions, the chief restrictions on its imports being those due to 
the shortage of shipping and those self-imposed by cautious mer- 
chants, who fear a lowering of prices when the war is over. Orders 
totaling large amounts placed by South African merchants are said 
to have been refused by the manufacturers owing to their inability 
to fill them. Considering the last five years together, the deduction 
can be made that South Africa is in the midst of a period of steady 
expansion, checked only in part by temporary conditions arising 
from the war. In the following table the import figures include mer- 
chandise. Government stores, and specie, and the export figures 
include South African produce, reexports, and specie : 



Trade. 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


Imports 


$185,099,737 
278,890,423 


$193,906,715 
307,916,805 


$208,271,975 
324,398,709 


$177,100,991 
195, 746, 606 


$164,650,932 


Exports 


82, 046, 138 






Total 


463,990,160 


501,823,520 


532,670,684 


372, 847, 597 


246,697,070 







THE IMPORT TRADE. 

The decreased imports in 1914 and 1915 can be attributed chiefly 
to three causes. In the first place, various foodstuffs were produced 
within South Africa in larger quantities during the past two years, 
thus reducing the necessity of importations from overseas. Second, 
the stoppage of diamond-mining operations undoubtedly restricted 
the importation of the supplies required by that industry. Finally, 
as might be expected, more caution Avas exercised in the purchase of 
goods, the aim naturally being to obtain longer use and wider service 
from the materials and supplies on hand. The export of ostrich 
feathers was also considerably smaller, and the farmers interested in 
those birds did not have the same purchasing power as in prosperous 
seasons. Considering that the decrease in imports in 1915 was only 
slightly over 20 per cent as compared with 1913 (the latter year rep- 

178 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



179 



resenting the highest mark since the Union was formed), there is cer- 
tainly no cause for pessimism or doubt as to the sound condition of 
the South African trade, despite the present abnormal times. 

Since the beginning of August, 1915, an improvement in all 
branches of trade has been very noticeable. During the last five 
months of that year the imports amounted to $71,989,760, while those 
of the corresponding period of 1914 were $59,277,897, showing an 
increase of $12,711,863. For the first six months of 1916 the imports 
were $96,422,456, while those of the corresponding period of 1915 
were $73,191,858, an increase of $23,230,598. 

The imports of agricultural machinery and implements have fared 
as badly, perhaps, as those of an}^ other commodity. In 1913 the 
imports under these headings amounted to $2,997,200 and in 1915 to 
$1,631,601. Considerable improvement has been experienced since the 
beginning of 1916. During the first six months of that year the im- 
]3orts of these goods amounted to $839,977, as against $486,621 for the 
corresponding period of 1915. 

THE EXPORT TRADE. 

The statistical returns for the year 1915 show increases, as com- 
pared Avith the previous 3^ear, in the exports of all agricultural prod- 
ucts of the Union except bark, ostrich feathers, fresh fruit, mohair, 
and horns. The following are the chief items in which increases 
occurred : 



Articles. 



Wool 

Hides and skins 

Corn, grain, and meal . 

Meats 

Tobacco 

Wines 



1914 



§20,625,225 

7,651,394 

2,360.734 

73,504 

90,804 

46,849 



1915 



26,181,921 

8,155.252 

3,551,124 

.574, 889 

176,673 

101,963 



Articles. 



Spirits 

Hay and fodder 

Potatoes 

Sugar, molasses, and treacle 

Dried fruit 

Eggs 



1914 



m, 672 

232,195 

49, 765 

80,210 

2,905 

54, 602 



1915 



$170 795 
283,984 

83,198 
242, 288 

76, 920 
101,213 



Some of these figures are very remarkable, and the increases re- 
corded are probably due in some measure to war conditions. While 
the Union is losing, temporarily at least, on diamonds and ostrich 
feathers, which in recent years ranked second and fourth, respec- 
tively, in importance among the exports, it is building up new 
branches of export trade, which should be of marked advantage to 
the country in the years to come. 

The following table shows the total exports of the Union for five 
recent years, excluding raw gold, diamonds, and ostrich feathers: 



Trade. 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


Exports 


$278, 890, 423 
221,909,436 


$307,916,805 
243,837,247 


$324,398,709 
255, 780, S60 


$195,746,606 
133,340,163 


$82,046,138 
11,776,492 


Deducting gold, diamonds, and 
feathers 






Total exports other than 
gold, diamonds, and feath- 
ers 


56,980,987 


64,079,558 


68,617,849 


62,406,443 


70,269,646 





It will be readily seen that the position of the Union in 1915 was 
quite satisfnctor3\ Indeed, the total South African exports, aside 



180 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



from the three items exchidecl, were even higher than in 1913, a 
3^ear untroubled by war conditions and the best trade year the Union 
has had since its foundation. The output of what ma}^ be regarded 
as the permanent productive industries of the countr}^ — those to 
which it is chiefly looking for the building up of its future pros- 
perity — has been fully maintained during the past live j^ears, and 
markets have been found abroad. , There is much reason for satis- 
faction in the fact that the recent loss of trade is wholly attributable 
to an inevitable shortage in the speculative industries of diamonds 
and ostrich feathers. The production of gold was fully maintained 
during 1914 and 1915, and this item of South African production is 
not accountable for any loss. The diamond industry is one that can 
be carried on v\^ith a great deal of elasticity, the production being 
generally governed by the demand, in order to maintain high 
prices — that is, the production of diamonds can be increased to meet 
all reasonable demands likely to be made upon the industry. Active 
diamond-mining operations have been discontinued since the out- 
break of war, and the companies interested have limited their activi- 
ties to working their reserves of ore. The exportation of diamonds 
amounted to $58,4-78,^:19 in 1913 and decreased to $8,156,925 in 1915. 
This industry is, however, gradualh^ improving its position, as indi- 
cated by the fact that during the first six months of 1915 the exports 
were only $1,521,895, while during the corresponding period in 1916 
they amounted to $8,646,476, a sum greater than the value of all the 
diamonds exported during the whole of 1915. 

The ostrich-feather trade is subject to more or less the same vicis- 
situdes as that in diamonds, and the exports, which amounted to 
$14,373,631 in 1913, decreased to $3,619,566 in 1915. No recovery 
has been observable, so far, in the export trade in this commodity. 

In general, the exports for the first six months of 1916 show a 
decided improvement over those for the same period of the pre- 
ceding year. Excluding bulk gold only, the total expoj-ts for the 
period under consideration amounted to $52,806,202, as against 
$35,956,213 in 1915, an increase of $16,849,989. 

DISTRIBUTION OF FOREIGN TRADE. 

The imports and exports of merchandise during 1915, by articles 
and countries, were as follows: 

IMPORTS. 



Articles and coun- 
tries of origin. 



Apparel and slops: 

Total 

France 

India 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Bags, not leather: 

Total 

India 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Boots and shoes: 

Total 

France 

Switzerland 

United Kingdom 

United States 



Value. 



$9,434,815 

38.319 

61, 425 

9, 055, 705 

188, 801 

3,126,954 

2, 782, 850 

338, 548 

3,402 

4, 766, 434 

1,173 

99, 681 

4,233,273 

349, 478 



Articles and coun- 
tries of origin. 



Coffee: 

Total 

Brazil 

Costa Rica 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Confectioneryand 
jams: 

Total 

France 

Switzerland 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Corn, grain, and flour: 

Total 

Argentina 

Canada 



Value. 



$2, 627, 910 

2, 369, 197 

95,608 

12, 682 

238 



1, 621, 556 

27, 540 

131, 250 

1,382,436 
31, 661 

7, 608, 881 
1, 328, 506 
2,199,731 



Articles and coun- 
tries of origin. 



Corn, grain, and 
flour — Continued. 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Cotton piece goods: 

Total 

Italy 

Switzerland 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Cotton rugs and 
blankets: 

Total 

Italy 

Netherlands 

United Kingdom 

United States 



Value 



S304, 424 
3,061,384 

8, 764, 430 
440, 506 
121, 419 

7,925,684 
62, 042 



1,003,642 

67, 504 

243, 602 

658, 589 

6,264 



I 



MARKETS IX SOUTH AFRICA. 

IMPORTS— Continued. 



181 



Articles and conn- 
tries of origin. 



Value. 



Cotton underwear 
and hosiery: 

Total 

Japan 

Switzerland 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Drugs and chemicals: 

Total 

Canada 

Norway 

United Kingdom 

United States 

E a r t h e nware and 
chinaware: 

Total 

France 

Japan 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Fish: 

Total 

Canada 

Norway 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Furniture: 

Total 

Canada 

India 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Glycerin: 

Total ! 

France 

Netherlands 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Haberdashery and 
milUnery: 

Total 

France 

Switzerland 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Hardware and cut- 
lery: 

Total 

Canada 

Sweden 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Hats and caps: 

Total 

India 

Italy 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Implements, agricul- 
tural: 

Total 

Canada 



$3, 725, 568 

397, 039 

45, 658 

2, 962, 891 

222, 911 

5, 221, 545 

209, 898 

71,800 

4,307,632 
310, 366 



1, 036, 943 

6,619 

12, 268 

462, 064 

1,840 

1, 291, 062 
202, 846 
347, 829 
340, 471 
129, 133 

1,741,145 
59, 104 

122, 130 
1,276,512 

147, 075 

1,767,186 

287, 450 

69,980 

1,363,165 

5,461 



4,539,865 
458, 449 
669, 962 

3,011,998 
130, 028 



4, 886, 365 

66, 623 

114, 592 

3, 410, 745 

1, 198, 561 

1,020,343 

23, 987 

25,087 

948, 267 

8,020 



2, 848, 177 
167, 103 



Articles and coun- 
tries of origin. 



Value. 



Articles and coun- 
tries of origin. 



Implements, a g r i - 
cultural — Contd. 

Sweden 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Iron bars, bolts, and 
rods: 

Total 

Germany 

Sweden.' 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Iron sheets and 
plates: 

Total 

Belgium 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Leather, manufac- 
tures: 

Total 

Australia 

Portugal 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Machinery, manufac- 
turing: 

Total 

France 

Netherlands 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Machinery, mining: 

Total 

Germany 

Sweden 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Meat: 

Total 

Australia 

Denmark .... 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Milk, condensed: 

Total 

Netherlands 

Switzerland 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Motor cars and parts: 

Total 

Canada 

France 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Oil, kerosene: 

Total 

United Kingdom 

United States 



S106, 523 
475, 832 
509, 673 



1,098,154 

2,331 

64, 808 

987, 676 

295, 411 



1, 848, 091 

1,046 

1,261,295 

585, 479 



1, 136, 392 

664, 131 

1,090 

291,460 

177, 403 



1, 482, 185 
6,828 
7,417 

1,377,541 
78,088 

3, 184, 695 

10, 570 

11,801 

1, 788, 970 

1, 166, 656 

1,027,677 
177, 691 
402, 265 
459, 373 
411,351 

1,997,372 
214, 511 
124, 354 

1, 144, 202 
90,025 

2, 241, 836 

703, 433 

7,865 

438, 545 

1, 099, 002 

1,184,563 

5 

1,184,555 



Oilman's stores: 

Total 

France 

Netherlands 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Paper: 

Total 

Canada 

Sweden 

United Kingdom 

United States. 
Rice: 

Total 

India 

Siam 

United Kingdom 

United States. 
Spirits, potable: 

Total 

France 

Netherlands . . 

United Kingdom 
Stationery and books: 

Total 

India 

Netherlands 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Tea: 

Total 

Ceylon 

India 

United Kingdom 

United States. 
Wood and timber: 

Total , 

Norway 

Sweden 

United Kingdom 

United States... 
Woolen blankets and 
rugs: 

Total , 

Italy , 

Netherlands 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Woolen cloth and 
piece goods: 

Total 

France 

Switzerland 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Zinc and zinaware: 

Total 

France 

United Kingdom 

United States 



Value. 



§1,018,981 

52, 398 

16, 513 

703, 292 

209, 094 

1,578,424 

287,645 

254, 630 

761, 709 

91,688 

1,917,450 

1,387,226 

301, 714 

9,991 

818 

1,806,415 

322,493 

77,961 

1,373,638 

2,813,630 

4,414 

47,298 

2,470,479 

221,305 

1,557,688 

1, 022, 700 

367,217 

126, 291 

19 

3,098,086 

340,217 

790,456 

3,056 

486, 713 



1,009,253 

55, 162 

11,261 

933, 390 

720 



1, 784, 263 
50,845 

8,746 
1,715,037 

1,986 

1,004,898 

8,050 

11,697 

984,697 



182 



AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



EXPORTS. 



Articles and coun- 
tries 01 destination. 



Angora hair: 

Total , 

Australia 

United Kingdom 

United States... 
Asbestos, raw: 

Total 

India 

United Kingdom 
Blasting compounds; 

Total 

Australia 

New Zealand . . . 

United Kingdom 
Coal: 

Total 

Ship's stores 

New Zealand . . . 

United Kingdom 
Copper ore and regu- 
lus: 

Total 

United Kingdom. 
Diamonds, rough: 

Total 

India 

Netherlands 

United Kingdom 

United States... 
Fish, dried and pre- 
served: 

Total 

France 

Mauritius 



Value. 



J3, 346, 375 

1,650 

2, 431, 615 

913,112 

216, 501 

10 

216,419 

782, 373 
347, 117 
107,063 
160, 054 

5,546,082 

4, 458, 736 

182, 509 

15 



3, 416, 565 
3, 416, 565 

8, 156, 925 
64,078 
33,511 

8, 039, 473 
19,850 



643, 604 
41,852 

77,548 



Articles and coun- 
tries of destination. 



Value. 



Fish, dried and pre- 
s erved— Continued . 

United Kingdom. 

United States 

Fruit, fresh: 

Total 

Ships' stores 

Portuguese East 
Africa 

United Kingdom 
Hides and skins: 

Total 

Australia 

Canada 

United Kingdom 

United States... 
Maize: 

Total 

Australia 

Portuguese East 
Africa 

United Kingdom 
Meats, frozen and 
fresh: 

Total 

Australia 

United Kingdom 
Oil, whale: 

Total 

United Eangdom 
Ostrich feathers: 

Total 

Australia 

British East Af- 
rica 



$427, 693 
8,760 

319, 778 
21,335 

20, 663 
257,389 

8, 168, 260 

20, 619 

88, 765 

6,584,477 

1, 459, 960 

3, 073, 905 
756, 430 

25, 511 
2, 270, 539 



589,031 
143,329 
423, 581 

399, 152 
387, 861 

3, 619, 566 
21, 505 

26,499 



Articles and coun- 
tries of destination. 



Ostrich feathers- 
Continued. 

United Kingdom 

United States — 
Tin ore and concen- 
trates: 

Total 

India 

Straits Settle- 
ments 

United Kingdom 
Tobacco: 

Total 

Australia 

Southwest Af- 
rica 

United Kingdom 

United States... 
Wattle bark: 

Total 

Australia 

India 

United Kingdom 

United States... 
Wool, scoured: 

Total 

Italy 

United Kingdom 

United States... 
Wool, unwashed: 

Total 

Canada 

Italy 

United Kingdom 

United States... 



Value. 



82,204,125 
1, 352, 201 



1,877,987 
21,899 

1,240,904 
615,184 

394,950 
30,936 

169,408 

32, 693 

49 

950, 154 
170. 824 

16 581 
731,995 

29,958 

3,011,891 
36, 893 

2,176,387 
798, 612 

23,132,674 

5,256 

7,972 

16,428,935 

6, 686, 464 



The total imports of merchandise and exports of South African 
produce (except ship's stores) during 1915, by countries (excluding 
Rhodesia), were as follows; 



Countries. 



British Empire: 

United Kingdom . . . 

Canada 

India 

Ceylon 

Australia 

Straits Settlements, 
other 

Total British Em 
pire 

Foreign countries: 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Dutch East Indies.. 



Imports. Exports. 



$83,060,473 
4, 759, 822 
6, 159, 173 
1,112,322 
2,211,995 
57, 760 
681,840 



98,043,385 



$47,980,064 

106,425 

410, 558 

139, 498 

1,475,396 

1,277,102 

1,644,755 



53,033,7S 



544,878 
2, 357, 907 

566,086 
2,488,622 

827,290 



43, 580 
"33,'69i 



Countries. 



Foreign countries — Con, 

Italy 

Norway 

Portuguese East Af- 
rica 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Japan 

United States 

Argentina 

Brazil 

Chile 

other 

Total foreign coun- 
tries 

Grand total 



Imports. 



$1,650,113 
1, 074, 703 

700, 265 
2, 189, 560 
1,545,752 
1,078,382 
21,476,584 
1,535,040 
2, 392, 868 
541,082 
2, 373, 158 



43,342,290 



141,385,675 



Exports. 



$45,988 
504,149 



11,331,791 
149,368 



471,958 



12, 580', 525 



65,614,323 



DOMINANT POSITION OF UNITED KINGDOM. 

The lead of the United Kingdom in both import and export trade 
is very marked and is due to the fact that South Africa is a British 
dominion, that there is a 3 per cent preference in the tariff in favor 
of English goods, and that the largest and most important firms in 
the Union are English, with offices or branches in England. During 
1915 the United Kingdom furnished 58.4 per cent and the British 
dominions 69.5 per cent of the merchandise imported. The United 
Kingdom's lead is still more evident in the export trade. In 1915 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



183 



the United Kingdom purchased 60.2 per cent and the British Empire 
75.8 per cent of the total exports, which percentage of exports would 
be greatly increased if the figures for raw gold exported were avail- 
able. Many mercantile institutions of South Africa are largely con- 
trolled by buying houses in England, which exist on the commissions 
obtained in the ordinary course of trade. These buying houses are 
averse to their agents buying outside of the United Kingdom, for 
such a course not only reduces their income from commissions but 
may lead to a growing trade with other countries, which in time 
may render their existence unnecessary. These buying houses in 
England are often constituted by former South African merchants. 

TRADE OF UNITED STATES. 

The following table shows the very rapid expansion of American 
trade in South Africa: 



Years. 


Imports 

from United 

States. 


Exports 

to United 

States. 


Total 
trade. 


1907 






$9,466,626 
18,367,251 
32,834,966 


1912 


S15,735,321 
21,485,899 


$2,631,930 
11,349,067 


1915 





v^n 1912 the United States, for the first time since the formation 
of the Union, held first rank among the foreign countries in the 
import trade. In 1915 the United States ranked first in both exports 
and imports, not only among the foreign countries but also among 
the countries of the British Empire other than the United Kingdom. 
As a matter of fact, the imports from the United States lack but a 
few thousand dollars of being as large as those from all other foreign 
countries combined. The exports of South Africa to the United 
States are more than four times as great as those to all other foreign 
countries combined, and greatly exceed those to countries in the 
British Empire other than the United Kingdom. The trade of the 
United States is, therefore, second only to that of the United King- 
dom, being far ahead of that of any of its other rivals. In a single 
jQRV the exports from South Africa to the United States increased 
more than 800 per cent. The following table shows the notable 
increase in American trade with South Africa in 1915 as compared 
with 1914: 



Character of trade. 



IMPORTS, EXCLUSIVE OF GOVERNMENT STORES AND SPECIE 

From United Kingdom 

From other parts of British Empire 

From United States 

From other foreign countries 

Total 

EXPORTS, EXCLUSIVE OF SPECIE. 

To United Kingdom 

To other parts of British Empire 

To United States 

To other foreign countries 

Shipped as sliip's stores 

Shipped through the post 

Total 



1914 



Value. 



$86,332,503 
19,513,750 
14,659,645 
31,925,486 



152,431,384 



165,181,395 

9,862,979 

1,414,536 

12,059,406 

5, 587, 156 

231,451 



194,336,923 



Percent- 
age of 
total. 



56.6 
12.8 
9.6 
21 



100 



85 
5.2 

.7 
6.2 
2.8 

.1 



100 



1915 



Value. 



183,060,473 
15,742,344 
21,485,899 
21,856,391 



142, 145, 107 



48,840,690 

12, 597, 198 

11,349,067 

2,791,181 

6,308,213 

213,829 



81,100,178 



Percent- 
age of 
total. 



58.4 
11.1 
15.1 
15.4 



100 



60.2 

15.6 

14 

3.4 

6.5 

.3 



100 



184 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

Eighty-seven vessels, with a total registered tonnage of 263,817, 
arrived at South African ports from the United States in 1915, and 
34 vessels, with a tonnage of 92,389, cleared for the United States 
the same year. A considerable quantity of American goods arrived, 
however^ by way of Canada. 

War conditions have, in a way, brought about this large increase 
in our trade with South Africa, but it is admitted that many of our 
staple commodities are gradually finding their way into the South 
African market and are being permanently established there. No 
small measure of our increased success in South Africa is attribut- 
able to the energetic work of the American consuls in that country, 
all of whom have established commercial information bureaus, where 
American catalogues and papers are available to the public. Some of 
the consulates are giving particular attention to trade matters by 
having officials in special charge of this work. The increase of 
American trade is also attributable to the fact that our manufac- 
turers have to deal at home with quite similar conditions, to their 
inventive genius in supplying something new and attractive, and to 
their over-sea selling arrangements. Several New York export com- 
mission houses are well established in South Africa, and they deserve 
much credit for the steady advance American trade is making in that 
country. Some of these firms maintain large offices and branch 
houses in the principal cities of South Africa, and have travelers 
regularly visiting for trade. 

The principal articles that South Africa purchases from the 
United States are kerosene, lubricating oils, agricultural machinery^ 
motor cars and trucks, typewriters, fencing and baling wire, glucose, 
wheat, and cash registers, in which articles the American share is 
larger than that of all other countries combined. The United States 
leads all other countries in the sale of agricultural machinery and 
implements. Other articles that the United States exports to South 
Africa are motorcycles, gasoline and naphtha, watches, electrical 
material and machinery, tinned meats, hardware, timber and lumber, 
railway material, mining machinery, iron and steel supplies, nails 
and screws, stoves, boots and shoes, corsets, etc. The success of the 
American motor car in South Africa has been phenomenal, and all 
the leading American makes are well represented. The United 
States does about 80 per cent of the motor-car business. In 1913 the 
imports of motor cars from all countries amounted to nearly 
$6,500,000, and in 1915 to about $2,300,000, the decrease being chiefly 
due to the inability to obtain cargo space and the high ocean freight 
rates. 

The exports to the United States are chiefly wool, hides and skins, 
mohair, ostrich feathers, wattle bark, and buchu leaves. For the first 
six months of 1916 the exports to the United States represented 19.7 
per cent of the total, whereas in the corresponding period of thei 
previous year they were only 13.2 per cent. 

In addition there is a good deal of trade between the United States 
and South Africa that is credited to other countries — England in 
particular. Moving-picture films, phonographs, and photographic 
material of American manufacture are imported in large quantities, 
yet the statistics of imports do not indicate that the United States is 
an important source of supply. A similar condition undoubtedly 
exists in connection with South African exports. The United States 



MARKETS IX SOUTH AFRICA. 185 

is a very large bu3"er of South African diamonds, vet it is credited 
Avith only about $20,000 worth in 1915 and, while ostrich feathers 
are increasingly shipped direct to the United States, there must be 
large shipments for America for which England receives credit. 

There should be mam- openings for American trade when hostilities 
cease. All South African merchants have had a certain number of 
business transactions with American firms and, in general, are very 
appreciative of the attention given to their business by American 
exporters. There has been much conservatism in the purchases of 
stock during the war, and at its termination South African merchants 
will undoubtedly place large orders with firms so situated that they 
can reasonably and expeditiously fill them. The United States 
should be able to do this better than any other country, and American 
manufacturers and exporters should make read}^ to seize that favor- 
able opportunity. The manager in the principal South African 
office of an American mercantile agency states that a moderate esti- 
mate of the total business that the United States will be able to do 
when peace is made is between $50,000,000 and $100,000,000 annually. 

TRADE BY PORTS AND ROUTES. 

The imports and exports of merchandise through the various ports 
in 1915 were as folloAvs: 



Ports. 



Imports. 



Exports. 



Cape Town 

Port Elizabeth 

East London 

Durban 

Other Union ports 

Delagoa Bay 

Beira and Feira (via Portuguese East Africa) and overland. 

Total 



S41,799,0n 
34, 374, 124 
15,968,607 
57,097,924 

1,355,062 
13, 282, 323 

6, 345, 765 



$19,219,935 

15, 719, 004 

11,866,707 

20,393,925 

4,641,483 

4,102,897 

6,171,170 



170, 222, 816 



82,115fl21 



The trade through Delagoa Bay consists chiefl}^ of goods destined 
to or exported from the Transvaal. The import trade by this route 
is regulated by an agreement between the government of Portuguese 
East Africa and the Union of South Africa, providing that the im- 
port trade into the so-called competitive areas, comprising Johannes- 
burg and the immediate surrounding territory of the Transvaal, shall 
be so apportioned as to allow not more than 55 per cent of the total 
imports to enter via Delagoa Bay, and the remainder via Union 
ports. Owing to exigencies arising from the war, the clauses of this 
agreement have not been in full operation. Since the beginning of 
hostilities in Europe, Durban, Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East Lon- 
don, and Delagoa Bay, in th^ order named, were the principal ports 
of entry as regards value of imports, as well as the chief ports for 
the shipment of South African products. 

EFFECTS OF THE WAR. 

The year following the outbreak of hostilities was one of much 
difficulty and anxiety for the commercial community of South Africa. 
The increase of freight rates and the fluctuations of marine insurance 
introduced an element of uncertainty for the importer, who, in 
consequence, found it almost impossible to forecast the landed cost 



186 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

of even the most ordinary commodities. Further, the disorganization 
of shipping facilities, owing to the elimination of all enemy vessels, 
the large demands made by the British and Allied Governments on 
their shipping, and the destruction of a percentage of the mercantile 
marine made it very difficult to obtain adequate supplies of goods 
from overseas and to send the South African produce abroad. Wool 
and wattle bark had been purchased in large quantities by Germany 
before the war, and while it was not difficult to find an outlet for 
these products elsewhere, still, during the first months of the war, 
these industries underwent very anxious times, which intensely ag- 
gravated the depression already felt. All but a small proportion 
of the wattle bark produced by South Africa went to Germany before 
the war, as that country was able to handle the product in bulk. A 
large English demand could not be created at once, for the reason 
that English tanners use chiefly the bark extract. As a result, the 
exports of this article suffered a decided setback. Diamonds and 
ostrich feathers, two of the chief products of South Africa, also 
came practically to a standstill, so far as the export trade was con- 
cerned. 

The financial condition of the country never wavered, however, 
in spite of all these drawbacks. Because of the uncertainty as to the 
probable duration of the war, merchants throughout the Union at 
once curtailed their orders and indents and, in a number of instances, 
sent cancellations to their suppliers overseas. As a result, the stocks 
of the wholesale and retail merchants became very much depleted 
and all efforts w^ere centered upon the disposal of the stocks on hand, 
among w^hich there were large quantities of more or less obsolete 
goods, for which very good prices were realized. This led to an 
exceptional situation. The South African banks have had more 
money than they could use, the merchants preferring to leave their 
mf)ney lying idle, but ready to use when hostilities cease, rather than 
risk purchasing goods at enhanced values from either Europe or 
America and having such stocks left on their hands when prices, at 
the close of the war, became nearer to normal. There has conse- 
quently been an abundance of money in South Africa, and the 
merchants, while suffering a loss in their volume of trade, are in a 
better financial position at present than they were before the war. 

Certain favorable aspects of South African commerce have emerged 
out of the struggle now being waged in Europe. Since gold is such 
an important factor in the economics of the war, operations in the 
South African gold fields were continued uninterruptedly and with 
all the energy that the labor market and the stocks of mining 
supplies on hand made possible. The difficulties in obtaining foreign 
goods, moreover, directed the attention of traders to the possibility 
of securing supplies from South African manufacturers and pro- 
ducers. Many firms that, before the war, would have been reluctant 
to act as distributers for South African goods have taken up the 
sale of food products and manufactured articles produced in the 
country. Thus a small boom has been created for the industries con- 
cerned, and this is likely to continue after the war, furthering produc- 
tion in certain lines of activity that otherwise would have been 
ignored or unsupported. 

The diamond industry has had no compensation for the disastrous 
effects of the war, although the exports during recent months show 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 187 

a decided improvement over those immediately following the begin- 
ning of hostilities. The ostrich farmers have realized good prices for 
the alfalfa and fodder that otherwise would have been consumed by 
the ostriches, as the Imperial and Union Governments purchased 
large quantities of that produce and large consignments have been 
shipped to the forces overseas. These conditions have also directed 
the attention of the ostrich farmers to the production of dairy prod- 
ucts, beef, and pork, which have commanded good prices and haA^e 
enabled them to take up these new^ branches of agriculture under 
auspicious circumstances. Wool, the chief pastoral and agricultural 
product of South Africa, has been eag^rly sought by foreign buyers, 
and prices nearly 50 per cent higher than in pre-war times have been 
obtained. The fact that the United States entered the field as a 
competitor for the purchase of wool, hides and skins, and other South 
African produce is claimed to have had the effect of greatl}^ improv- 
ing prices. South Africa has also been benefited, because the stress 
of war conditions has obliged the country to seek new markets for 
its products, bringing them to the attention of buyers who were 
previously unacquainted with them. It is logical to suppose that 
a large share of this new trade will be retained when the war is 
over. Summing up everything, the opinion is freely expressed in 
South Africa that the countr}^ has fared better in these distressing 
times than any other section of the British Empire, and even better 
than many neutral countries. 

As regards commercial conditions when peace is reestablished, 
South Africa is not looking with any misgivings to that period. 
Indeed, the general feeling is that, while the country is in a satis- 
factory position at present, the war is the only factor arresting the 
greater progress that it could otherwise make, and that, as soon as 
hostilities cease^ an era of unprecedented development of all its 
varied interests will begin. 

The country will probably receive a number of discharged soldiers 
and sailors, who for the most part will settle on the land, serving to 
quicken the development of its agricultural resources. 

So far as American trade is concerned, there are two questions 
upon the settlement of which the future of our trade in that country 
principally depends. One of these is the cost of freights, which, as 
shown elsewhere, have not only increased enormously since the begin- 
ning of the war but have also ceased to remain on an equal basis with 
those from English and Canadian ports, becoming nearly four times 
higher than the former and nearly double the latter. If American 
commerce should be penalized to such an extent, our trade would 
suffer in a very acute degree. The other important factor is the 
success or failure of the propaganda, so vigorously prosecuted in 
certain quarters, to increase the customs preference for I3ritish goods. 
It is difficult to determine what the outcome of this movement will be, 
but unless very strong pressure is brought to bear it is doubtful 
whether much or any change will be made in this respect, so far as 
American goods (and particularly agricultural machinery and im- 
plements) are concerned. The fact that the United States has become 
an important customer for South African products since the begin- 
ning of the war should react in a favorable w^ay in connection with 
this question. 



VII. RHODESIA. 

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE COUNTRY. 

The Zambezi Kiver divides Rhodesia into two parts. The southern 
part is known as Southern Rhodesia, with an area of 1-18,575 square 
miles and a population (census of 1911) of 23,606 whites and 717,471 
natives. The part h'ing to the north is known as Northern Rhodesia, 
with an area of 290,000 square miles and a population (census of 
1911) of 1,127 whites and 820,085 natives. It is estimated that, after 
1911 and up to the outbreak of the European war, the white popu- 
lation of Southern Rhodesia increased at the rate of 3,000 per annum. 
This increase has not been maintained since 1914, but it is quite 
likely to be resumed when the war is over. The white inhabitants, 
for the most part, are of British descent. 

The country is named after Cecil John Rhodes, the famous South 
African, whose foresight secured this important State for the British 
Empire. It is owned and controlled by the British South Africa 
Co., which was incorporated by a royal charter in 1889. The capital 
and seat of government of Southern Rhodesia is Salisbury. North- 
ern Rhodesia has a separate administration, which has its head- 
quarters at Livingstone. Language, currency, and weights and 
measures are such as are in vogue throughout the British Empire. 

SOUTHERN RHODESIA. 

Southern Rhodesia is at present much the more important of the 
two divisions. This is due to its larger white population, which has 
brought about a greater advance in the development of its resources. 
Southern Rhodesia is divided into two provinces — Matabeleland in 
the south, of which Bulawayo, a city of 5,800 inhabitants, is the chief 
center; and Mashonaland in the north, of which Salisbury, wnth 
4,000 inhabitants, is the principal city. 

PHYSICAL FEATURES. 

Physically, the country ma}^ be classified under three heads: 
(1) Wide, undulating plains, clothed with long grass, but com- 
paratively bare of trees; (2) broken ranges of hills and isolated hills, 
generally well wooded, w^here the bulk of the native population is 
found; (3) bush country and open plains alternating with woodland. 
A considerable part of the country consists of elevated plateaus from 
3,500 to 5,000 feet above the sea, of which the watersheds and up- 
lands are the most suitable for European occupation. It is estimated 
that the portion of Southern Rhodesia lying above the altitude of 
3,000 feet covers an area of nearly 100,000 square miles, and that 
Ijing above 4,000 feet an area of about 26,000 square miles. 

CLIMATE AND RAINFALL. 

While Southern Rhodesia extends from 16° to 22° south latitude 
and consequently is completely in the Tropics, it does not have the 

188 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFKICA. 



189 



average climate of the torrid zone. This is due to the great altitude 
of the country and partly, also, to the cooling effects of the rains fall- 
ing when the sun is the hottest. On the Rhodesian plateau, which is 
situated at altitudes varying from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, the maximum 
temperature rarely reaches 90°. On the low-lying lands, along the 
Limpopo and Zambesi Rivers, the heat is much more intense and tem- 
peratures of 100° and 110° are not rare. 

The Rhodesian year is made up of two seasons — the rainy or sum- 
mer season and the dry or winter season. The rainy season begins in 
October and ends in March. The dry season includes the other six 
months. The average duration of useful rains, however, does not 
cover a period of much more than five months in the greater part of 
Rhodesia. During the first months of the rainy season, nearly all 
rain comes down in the form of thunderstorms. During the second 
half of the rainy season thunderstorms are not so violent nor so fre- 
quent, and the rain, instead of having a local character, spreads over 
large areas and often over the whole country. Averages for several 
3^ears indicate that in Mashonaland the annual rainfall is from 25 to 
40 inches and in Matabeleland from 11 to 25 inches. This rainfall 
would be quite adequate for agricultural purposes were it not for the 
fact that it only spreads over five or six months of the year. 

Several rainfall averages are as follows: Matabeleland — Tuli, 13 
inches; Bulawayo, 23 inches; Gwelo, 21 inches. Mashonaland — Salis- 
bury, 32 inches; Umtali, 32 inches; Melsetter. 11 inches; Victoria, 24 
inches. The rainfall is lowest along the Avestern and southern dis- 
tricts and greatest in the eastern districts, or toward the Portuguese 
East African border. 

CHIEF TRADING CENTERS. 

The chief trading centers of Southern Rhodesia are Bulawayo and 
Salisburj^ Bulawayo is 1,360 miles from Cape Town and 680 miles 
from Johannesburg. This has always been the most prominent com- 
mercial center of Rhodesia, because of its being a railway center of 
considerable importance, the junction for Rhodesia and the Belgian 
Kongo and situated in the direct route of the Cape to Cairo railway. 
Salisbury is 374 miles from Beira and 301 miles from Bulawayo. 
From the standpoint of farm-machinery manufacturers and export- 
ers, this is the largest center of Rhodesia, on account of its proximity 
to the most important and progressive farming districts of that 
territor}^ Other cities of commercial importance are Umtali, 1,200 
whites; Gwelo, 570 whites; and Gatooma, 400 whites. 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 

The trade of Southern Rhodesia in recent times, Avith some fluctu- 
ations, has substantially increased from j^ear to year, as shoAvn by 
the following figures: 



Trade. 


1901 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


Imports 


$10,324,552 
2,968,565 


$13, 137, 701 
13,873,233 


$13, 255, 236 
14,478,324 


$14,051,454 
16,045,332 


$12, 197, 726 
13,431,949 


$9, 844, 589 
o 4, 025, 973 


Exports 







a Excluding the value of the gold exported, which information will be kept from the general public for 
the duration of the war. 



190 AGEICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

The outbreak of the war, as was to be expected, reacted unfavor- 
ably upon the progress of Southern Rhodesia's commerce. The chief 
drawbacks experienced were the difficulty of interesting new capital, 
the scarcity and high cost of ocean freight space, and the fact that a 
good many of its settlers left the country to enlist in the armies oper- 
ating in German Southwest Africa, German East Africa, and 
Europe. 

In considering the internal trade of Rhodesia, the fact must not be 
overlooked that, owing to its distance from the supplying countries 
of the world, the value of goods imported, when they reach destina- 
tion, increases in norma] times by 50 to HO per cent on account of the 
cost of ocean freight, railage, and customs duties. 

IMPORTS. 

The chief imports of Southern Rhodesia are agricultural ma- 
chinery, grain and flour, sugar, confectionery, wines and spirits, 
furniture, mining machinery, hardware, wearing apparel, cotton 
goods, drugs and chemicals, railway material, and gasoline and kero- 
sene. Many other articles are also imported in important quantities, 
as is to be expected, since the country so far has hardly developed 
any industries at all. An increasing trade is also done in goods 
purchased by the native population. Owing to the contact of the 
natives with civilization, they are beginning to purchase plow^s and 
other small agricultural implements and are also cultivating a taste 
for bicycles, sewing machines, cigarettes, European clothing, and 
hardware. 

The United Kingdom heads the list of countries exporting to or 
importing from Southern Rhodesia. A large trade also exists be- 
tween Rhodesia and the Union of South Africa. Germany was the 
country next in importance in Rhodesia before the war — the United 
States, however, being at that time a close competitor for that 
position. 

Considering that the total imports into Southern Rhodesia have 
decreased from $13,137,701 in 1911 to $9,844,589 in 1915 and the 
imports from the United Kingdom from $7,700,740 in 1911 to $5,074,- 
723 in 1915, the present position of the United States in the trade of 
Southern Rhodesia is very satisfactory indeed. At the present time 
the United States is outdistanced only by the United Kingdom and 
the Union of South Africa in the value of its exports into Southern 
Rhodesia. Of the total imports from non-British covmtries, which in 
1915 amounted to $1,563,373, the United States supplied $710,884. 
nearly equal to our share of the imports in 1911. The principal 
articles imported from the United States are agricultural, mining, 
and manufacturing machinery, electrical goods, hardware and tools, 
iron, steel, and fencing wire, water-boring machinery, gasoline and 
kerosene, lubricating oils, typewriters, photographic materials, trucks, 
furniture, motor cars, and lumber. 

EXPORTS. 

In addition to the exports of minerals, Rhodesia ships to over-sea 
countries increasing quantities of maize, hides and skins, and tobacco. 
The position of the United States in the export trade of Rhodesia for 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



191 



the 3^ear 1915 is quite remarkable. Excluding gold, all of which is 
exported to the United Kingdom, and dealing entirely with the other 
produce exported by Rhodesia, the official statistics shnv that the 
total exports of that country in 1915 amounted to $1,806,175. Of 
these the United States took $2,025,096, or nearly one-half. Exports 
to other countries were as follows : United Kingdom, $925,058 ; Union 
of South Africa, $695,911; ^^orthern Ehodesia, $391,361; Egypt, 
$285,693 ; Belgian Kongo, $188,121. The exports to the United States 
w^ere chiefly composed of copper blister, valued at $1,539,108, and 
chrome ore, valued at $185,190. 



MINING. 



Mining, which is the chief industry of Rhodesia, is extensively 
carried on by nearly 150 companies under license from the British 
South Africa Co., the owner of the mineral rights for the entire 
country by virtue of the Rudd Concession. The industry employs 
2,000 white persons and about 40.000 natives. The mineral output 
for the year 1915 was valued at $21,108,091, p.s follows : 



Articles. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Gold 




ounces.. 


915, 029 

185, 233 

3, 517 

28 

60, 581 

2,010 

409, 763 

9,622 

272 


$18,605,447 
83,431 


Silver 




do.... 


Copper 




tons.. 


1, 091, 624 


Lead 




do 


2,710 


Chrome ore 




do 


855, 492 


Asbestos 




do...- 


156, 652 


Coal 




do ... 


599, 523 
8,268 


Ironstone 




do 


Diamonds 




carats. . 


4,944 








Total 




21, 408, 091 







On the basis of a semiofficial analysis as to the industries that 
directly or indirectly are responsible for the imports into Southern 
Rhodesia, it is estimated that 55 per cent of these are for the mining 
industry and 30 per cent for the agricultural industry, while 15 per 
cent comprise requisites purchased by the natives. This calculation 
shows that the mining industry is responsible for more than one-half 
of the imports, and when it is remembered that except for the wages 
paid to the natives by those engaged in mining operations they w^ould 
have little money to spend, it will easily be seen huw much really does 
depend on the mining industry. The farmers also depend almost 
entirely upon the mines for their markets. The only industries of 
any importance that are quite independent of mining are tobacco 
growing, fruit growing, ranching, and corn growling, for export. 

In gold production Rhodesia holds sixth place among gold-pro- 
ducing countries. Since 1898 it has produced gold valued, approxi- 
mately, at $170,000,000. 

Large deposits of copper are known to exist in several sections of 
Rhodesia. In Kansanshi, Northern Rhodesia, deposits showing 
assays of 54 per cent of copper are being worked. Copper mining in 
Rhodesia has made greater progress in recent years than the ex- 
ploitation of any of the other minerals in ^vhich the country abounds. 

Chrome ore ranks third in value among the minerals of Rhodesia. 
The deposits of this ore in the Selukwe district are said to be almost 



192 AGKICULTURAI IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

inexhaustible and probabl}^ rank as the largest noAv known in the 
world. Rhodesia in 1915 supplied about 50 per cent of the world's 
consumption of chrome ore, estimated at 120,000 tons per annum. 
Rhodesia exports this ore to the United Kingdom and the United 
States. 

The country possesses very considerable mineral deposits, and 
many old gold workings are scattered over the countr}^, from which, 
experts say, gold in fabulous values was extracted. The present 
scarcity of skilled labor and the high cost of operation, due to high 
rates of freight and passenger transportation, are said to operate 
against the more extensive and rapid exploitation of Rhodesia's 
mining resources. 

RAILWAYS. 

Communication has been established with every important center 
of industry in Rhodesia by means of railways. Including the line 
from Umtali to Beira, the present mileage in Northern and Southern 
Rhodesia is about 2,500. The railways^ for the most part, are owned 
by the Rhodesian Government. Both freight and passenger rates 
are high, but exceptions are made in respect to fares and freight 
rates for immigrants and for the transportation of farm machinery 
and some other articles required by the farming communities. Pas- 
senger fares are $0.06 first class, $0.04 second class, and $0.02 third 
class per mile. On some of the branch lines, including the main line 
from Broken Hill to the Kongo border, the rates are $0.12 per mile 
for Europeans and $0.02 per mile for natives. Farm machinery from 
Port Elizabeth to Bulawayo pays $1.52 per 100 pounds. The rate 
from Beira to Bulawayo is $0.99 per 100 pounds. 

The bulk of oversea imports of merchandise for Southern Rho- 
desia are shipped via Port Elizabeth, whence they are forwarded to 
Bulawayo, Salisbury, Livingstone, and other points in Rhodesia, by 
rail. Farm machinery intended for Mashonaland is generally 
shipped through the port of Beira. 

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

When the present difficulties in developing Rhodesia along agri- 
cultural lines are taken into account, it must be admitted that the 
country has made very satisfactory progress in recent years. Present 
conditions, more temporary than permanent, place a heavy burden 
upon those taking up the task of taming and cultivating its soil. 
The countr}^ is assuredly endowed with abundant natural advantages 
for the successful prosecution of both agricultural and pastoral pur- 
suits. The work of subduing its virgin veld, the testing out of its 
possibilities, the absence of a large white population, resulting in a 
restricted market for agricultural produce, the high cost of materials 
required by farmers (owing to the enormous distance from sources 
of supply), the expensiveness of shipping the produce to oversea 
markets, and the high rates for internal railway transportation 
because of the small population its railways serve — these constitute, 
among other things, the difficulties that are retarding the develop- 
ment of Rhodesia. Gradually, however, year by year, these disadvan- 
tages, which have nothing to do with the potentialities of its soil, are 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 



193 



being overcome and the stable conditions already established justify 
the sanguine expectations of these Avho have risked their all in the 
future agricultural possibilities of the country. 

Rhodesia, at least fcr the present, is net, however, a suitable coun- 
try for the farmer without an adequate amount of capital. The 
British South Africa Co., as a matter of fact, discourages the immi- 
gration of farmers without at least a capital of $2,500. A much 
greater sum, say $10,000, is reckoned as necessary by those who have 
actually experienced the vicissitudes of taking up farming in that 
country. The necessity for so large a capital will doubtless cause a 
retardation in the agricultural progress of the country, since the 
United States, Canada, Australia, and other countries would offer 
a far more attractive field to farmers in a position to invest such a 
sum of mone}^ 

The present suitability of Rhodesia as a whole for development 
along agricultural lines has not as yet been positively ascertained. 
It is not infrequent, when one is traveling in that country, to hear 
the farmers themselves remark that if they w^ere able to realize ade- 
quate values for the investment they have made, both in capital and 
in labor, they would move on to other parts of Rhodesia or to other 
countries where conditions are more satisfactory. Considering the 
high type of men who have taken up land in Rhodesia and the capital 
that they brought w^ith them when settling in that country, an indi- 
cation is given that the conditions prevailing in some districts are 
not altogether satisfactory. 

Until the country enters an active period of development and 
increases its production, in order to reduce the cost of operation and 
transportation (which can only be brought about by a large increase 
in population), the future of agriculture is largely bound up with 
the progress of mining. Until that time farming will be almost en- 
tirely undertaken to provide the foodstuffs that the population re- 
quires. 

The natural conditions of Rhodesia point to an eventual expansion 
of its farming activities in the direction of producing and exporting 
great quantities of fresh and canned meats, dairy produce, oil seeds, 
and corn. 

The following figures are indicative of the progress of the land 
industries of Southern Rhodesia between the years 1910 and 1915 : 



Items. 



White farmers in Mashonaland number. 

White farmers in Matabeleland do. . . 

rattle do... 

Kxports of o.x and cow hides pounds. 

Exports of corn do. . . 

Exports of unmanufactured tobacco do. . . 

Wool do . . . 



1910 



1915 



990 


1,151 


480 


600 


371,000 


840,926 


208,699 


706, 770 


.■.HJ 1,123 


71,814,851 


322,334 


1,560,025 


5,399 


36, 123 



LAND UNDER CULTIVATION. 



The area of land under cultivation in Southern Rhodesia during 
the season 1915-16 is officiall}^ given as 225,754 acres. Mashonaland 
had 177,909 acres, of which 145,451 acres were under corn and 1,323 
acres under tobacco. Matabeleland had 47,845 acres. 37,972 of whicli 



1276°— 17— Xo. 146- 



-13 



194 



AGBICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



were under corn and 10 under tobacco. The districts showing the 
largest acreages of land under cultivation are Salisbury, 42,044; 
Mazoe, 50,801 ; Lomagundi, 15,532 ; and Hartley, 26,475. The aggre- 
gate acreage in these four districts is 134,852, or nearly 60 per cent 
of the total area under cultivation in Southern Rhodesia. Mashona- 
land is making greater progress than Matabeleland in putting land 
under cultivation, because of its having vast areas of land well suited 
for that purpose. Matabeleland, owing to its smaller and uncertain 
rainfall, has not noticeably increased its cultivated area in recent 
years, nor is it likely to do so in the near future. Its chief value 
is in connection Avith cattle raising, which, in that Province in par- 
ticular, is making most decided progress. 

In addition to the area under cultivation, it must be noted that 
there are several million acres of land that are occupied and devoted 
to cattle raising. It is hoped that as time goes on crops will b(e 
grown in these cattle-raising sections, to provide the stock with feed 
during unfavorable seasons. 

Agricultural development, so far, has been confined to districts 
within 25 miles from railways. It was estimated in 1913 that 
Southern Rhodesia had, at that time, about 45,000,000 acres of land 
available for settlement. Many thousands of farms are already sur- 
veyed and ready for occupation. For reasons already indicated, it is 
not expected that these will be rapidly taken up, although it is not 
improbable that there will be a comparatively large influx of immi- 
grants into the country after the war. 

The statistics of farm and live stock for the year 1915, applying 
exclusively to the operations of Avhite farmers, give an indication of 
the present importance of agriculture in Rhodesia. 



Items. 



Butter pounds. 

Cattle belonging to farmers ^. number. 

Cream sold potinds. 

Donlreys number. 

Farms worked do. . . 

Farmers do. . . 

Goats do . . . 

Horses do. . . 

Mules do . . . 

Pigs do. . . 

Sheep: 

Merino do . . . 

Other do. . . 

Stock, pure bred do. . . 

Wool pounds. 



Mashona- 
land. 



105,548 

231, 714 

42, 723 

4,448 

1,421 

1,151 

14,905 

955 

2,024 

14, 854 

7,721 

20, 167 

757 

24,037 



Matabele- 
land. 



189,020 

163,142 

130,633 

5-, 888 

724 

600 

11,613 

676 

1,278 

4,796 

2,420 

19,914 

1,168 

8,754 



LAND BANK. 



The establishment of a land bank in 1912 has assisted very materi- 
ally in the progress of Southern Rhodesian agriculture. This bank 
confines its business to the farming industr3^ and advances are made 
against first mortgages on land property or on deposit of other 
approved security, and for the purpose of purchase, or part purchase, 
of land, or to pay off existing liabilities on the land, to effect im- 
provements such as buildings, fences, and irrigation Avorks, and to 
purchase live stock, agricultural implements, and similar requisites. 



• MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 195 

Interest on advances is charged at the rate of 6 per cent per annum, 
and advances must be repaid within a period not exceeding 10 years. 

SALES OF LAND. 

During the year ended March 31, 1915, 584,981 acres of land were 
sold by the British South Africa Co. to 213 farmers. This is con- 
sidered quite satisfactory when one takes into account the abnormal 
conditions created by the war. The average price paid for unim- 
proved land in Ehodesia is about $1.75 per acre. Mixed farms are 
usuall}^ 1,200 acres in extent, and farms for stock raising 6,000 acres, 
the latter being in the more remote parts of the country. Land may 
be purchased outright for cash, subject to the fulfillment of a simple 
occupation condition, or it may be held under a permit of occupation, 
with option of purchase for cash, or by installments, at any time 
within 10 years. If it is held under a permit, the occupant pays 
rent at the rate of 6 per cent of the purchase price. After obtaining 
title the proprietor pays an annual quitrent of about $5 per 1,000 
acres. 

MISCELLANEOUS FARMING NOTES. 

Two classes of soil are chiefly found in Rhodesia^ — red loam and 
granitic sand. The former is peculiar to Mashonaland, whereas 
the Matabeleland soils are chiefly of a sandy nature. The red soil is 
fairly fertile, but it lacks phosphoric oxide, and in consequence phos- 
phoric fertilizers are frequently added to it. Potash is another 
chemical found in insufficient quantities, and as a result potash fer- 
tilizers are also frequently applied. The sandy soils of Matabeleland 
require quite a thorough system of farming to make them productive. 
Rhodesia does not have deep, rich, alluvial soils in any very large 
quantities. As indicated in the discussion of the soils of the Union, 
however, the excellent climate enjoyed in Rhodesia and the abundance 
of sunshine modify the relative chemical inferiority of these soils. 

Cattle diseases and droughts constitute two serious drawbacks in 
the agriculture of Southern Rhodesia. The latter are not so much 
to be feared in the Province of Mashonaland, but their occurrence in 
Matabeleland has been altogether too frequent to encourage its 
farmers in the growing of crops. Progress, however, is gradually 
being made in overcoming these tw^o obstacles. The dipping of cat- 
tle is zealouslj^ practiced, and seeds and methods of cultivation suit- 
able for the low rainfall are gradually being introduced. The 
advisability of thoroughly tilling the soil to prevent the undue 
evaporation of moisture is becoming better understood every year 
by the farmers in the affected sections. 

Owing, possibly, to the high cost of materials and labor, little 
progress in irrigation has so far been made. Many of the large rivers 
of Rhodesia carry large bodies of water throughout the dry season, 
but they have so little fall that their water can not be brought onto 
the land by gravitation. The lands adjoining the rivers are, further- 
more, very warm^ often unhealthful, and too far from adequate 
means of transportation. These rivers will eventually become a gi^at 
asset to Rhodesia, but at present they are not of much importance. 

Farms, generally, are large in size and are certain to remain so 
for many years. The cheapest thing in Rhodesia is land. It is the 



196 A(iRICULTURA.L IMPLEMEI^TS AND MACHINERY. 

cost of the labor and materials required to make it productive that 
is delaying its utilization. 

Cooperation among farmers is making rapid progress. It has 
been proved that the present drawbacks in connection with farming 
can often be removed by collective effort. The sale and exportation 
of corn and tobacco is largely handled through farmers' cooperative 
associations, and it is not improbable that the activities of these will 
soon include the operation of creameries, meat-canning factories, oil 
factories, etc. 

The Rhodesian farmer, as a rule, is a worthy representative of the 
class of men that for several centuries the United Kingdom has sent 
forth to open up its \^ast domains overseas. He is progressive, well 
educated, persevering, and not infrequently connected with some of 
England's best and oldest fr\milies. His farming methods are gen- 
erally up to date. Unfortunately, he must of necessity depend on the 
native worker for the execution of his plans, to which fact, in no 
small measure, the unsatisfactory results that are often obtained must 
be attributed. In addition to labor being inefficient and scarce, it is 
also expensive, when one includes the capitation fees that the farmers 
must pay to the labor bureau through which native labor is recruited. 

There is a great deal of similarity^ generally speaking, between 
farming in Rhodesia and farming in the Union of South Africa. 
Consequently, what has been said regarding farmers in the latter 
country applies,, more or less closely, to Rhodesia. 

PRINCIPAL CROPS GROWN. 

A statistical statement published by the administration of Soutiiern 
Rhodesia in connection with the crops of the season 1915-16 shows 
that the principal crops grown in the 225,754 acres under cultivation 
in that country were distributed as follow^s: Maize, 183,423; sun- 
flowers, 1,766; beans, 2,424; tobacco, 1,310; oats, 1,385; Kafir corn, 
2,655 ; peanuts, 3,043 ; potatoes, 1^389 ; wheat, 1,560. 

COEN. 

Nearly 90 per cent of the land under cultivation in Rhodesia is 
devoted to corn growing. In 1915 the acreage under corn was 183,423. 
Often this crop is cultivated on a rather extensive scale. It is not 
uncommon for a single farmer to have from 200 to 500 acres under 
corn, and a few have 1,000 acres or more under that crop. 

This crop is cultivated along much the same lines as in the Union 
of South Africa, although disk plows are more often used in pre- 
paring the land. Seeding time occurs between November 15 and the 
end of December. As a general rule, corn is planted 40 inches between 
rows and 15 inches in the row. For ensilage, corn is planted in 
January about 30 inches between rows and 15 inches in the row and 
even somewhat closer. The type of corn chiefly grown in Rhodesia 
is Hickory King and a hybrid deriA^ed from it known as Salisbury 
White, w^hich in its main features resembles Hickory King. 

The disk harrow is found on almost eA^ery farm, and after the land 
has been ploAved for maize or for any other crop it is often spike- 
tooth-harroAved tAvice and disk-harroAved once or tAvice before plant- 
insf. As a rule the harvesting of maize is done as in the Union. The 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 197 

average yields in Rhodesia seldom exceed six bags of 200 pounds 
each per acre, but in the favored corn-growing districts the yields are 
much higher, frequently averaging 10 bags per acre. 

The necessity for some system of crop rotation is becoming more 
and more evident. The red soils that cover so extensive a section of 
Rhodesia require a rest from corn growing every three or four years. 
The present practice is to fertilize the land with superphosphates, 
since the character of the rainfall gives but limited opportunity to 
rotate corn with ether crops. The practice of growing peanuts as 
a rotation crop, however, has proved satisfactory and is steadilj^- 
increasing. 

Corn no doubt will remain for many years the chief grain crop of 
Rhodesia. The local consumption is about 600,000 bags per annum. 
In recent 3^ears the country has exported corn as follows: 1911^ 
$82,135; 1912, $33,575; 1913, $116,904; 1914, $544,970; 1915, $599,455. 

TOBACCO. 

It has been conclusiveh^ proved that with proper treatment tobacco 
of very good quality can be grown in Rhodesia. This industry, how- 
ever, has had its ups and downs in recent years. The output of 1913 
was about 3,000,000 pounds, nearly 10 times the quantity produced in 
1911. The tobacco reaped in 1915, however, was only a little more 
than 600,000 pounds. Evidently the inadequacy of marketing facili- 
ties and a lack of organization among growers are to be locked upon 
as the causes for this retrogressive movement in the tobacco industry. 
That tobacco growing in Rhodesia will have a bright future is prac- 
tically assured, and at the present time the industry is again on the 
up grade. In time it will doubtless become one of the most re- 
munerative industries of the country. 

Bright Virginia leaf is chiefly cultivated. It grows well in the 
Salisbur}^, Marandellas, and adjoining districts. Several tobacco 
warehouses have been erected, and a tobacco cooperative association, 
with a plant of its own to grade and pack the leaf for sale, has been 
organized. In favorable seasons the average yield gives a gross 
profit to the farmers of about $200 per acre. The bulk of the tobacco 
produced in Rhodesia is exported to the United Kingdom and the 
Union of South Africa, where it is eagerly sought for cigarette 
manufacturing. 

PEANUTS. 

Until recently the cultivation of peanuts had been regarded almost 
entirely as a native's crop, but during the past four years it has made 
rapid advances in Rhodesia as a staple crop. Peanuts are now 
grown more or less extensively on numerous farms in Mashonaland 
and also on not a few in Matabeleland. There is a substantial local 
market for them, since they form a necessary and cheap food for 
natives employed both in mines and farms, besides being used as a 
nutritious food for both cattle and pigs. During 1915 the British 
South Africa Co. established an oil-extracting factory, and this un- 
doubtedly will prove an incentive to the growing of this crop in a 
larger way in the future. 

Peanuts are planted in November and December in rows from 30 
to 36 inches apart and from 12 to 20 inches in the rows, according to 



198 AGRICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

variety. Both shelled and unshelled seed are used, and the Spanish 
variety is the most popular. Horse hoes are used to keep down weeds 
and keep the soil open. Weeders are used in some instances in the 
earlier stages of groAvth. Peanuts in Rhodesia require from six to 
seven months to ripen the seed. The average yields in Rhodesia are 
from 15 to 20 bags of 80 pounds of unshelled nuts per acre. Much 
greater yields are obtained, however, in individual cases. Harvest- 
ing is mostly done by hand, being a laborious and costly process. 
Natives are sent along the rows to loosen the plants and to shake 
off the adhering soil from the nuts. The plants are then thrown 
into heaps or windrows. There is a good opening for the sale of 
peanut diggers, and the adoption of this and other machines in con- 
nection with the cultivation of this crop would no doubt induce 
farmers to grow it more extensively. 

SUNFLOWERS. 

The local market for sunflower seed was very limited until the re- 
cent establishment of an oil factory by the British South Africa Co. 
The encouragement thus given was rapidly manifested Avhen the 
area planted under this crop in 1915-16 was found to be four times 
as large as during the previous season. Because of the facilities thus 
afforded to farmers to dispose of their crop and the fact that sun- 
flowers have been found to be more drought-resistant than other 
crops produced in Rhodesia, it is expected that a growing number of 
farmers will cultivate this plant in the future. 

Corn planters, with suitable plates, are used to sow the crop. This 
is usually done in December. The rows are 3 feet apart and the seed 
is planted in continuous drills 3 to 4 inches apart, from 4 to 10 
pounds of seed being sown per acre. When the plants are a few 
inches high they are thinned to stand 12 to 15 inches in the rows. 
Sunflowers require from 4 to 5 months to mature. The heads are 
harvested several days before the seeds are quite ripe, as, if they are 
fully matured, they are apt to scatter. The yields of Southern 
Rhodesia range from 800 to 2,000 pounds of cleaned sunflower seed 
per acre. 

There appears to be no really economical method of shelling the 
sunflower heads. The usual practice in Rhodesia is to use a flail or a 
rotary wheel. The latter is the most popular, and the rear wheel of a 
bicycle, turned by means of the pedal crank and the chain, is used 
for this purpose. The dry heads are held against the rapidly re- 
volving spokes, which thus shell off the seeds. Any satisfactory 
machine or device to shell sunflower heads is certain to meet with 
favor in Rhodesia. 

The drj^ stalks of the sunflower are too coarse to have any feeding 
value, but the heads, when containing the seed and just before ripen- 
ing, are of considerable value and are often turned into ensilage. 
Some difficulty is experienced in doing this, however, because unless 
they are handled with much care the}^ are apt to clog the cutter. 

OTHER CROPS. 

Wheat and oats are grown in very small quantities. In spite of 
its limited white population, Southern Rhodesia produces only 15 per 
cent of the wheat it requires. The country undoubtedly is not favor- 



MARKETS IliT SOUTH AFRICA. 199 

ably situated for the cultivation of these cereals. The chief difficul- 
ties are the lack of good spring rains and the fact that the country 
is too warm. 

The growing of Kafir corn would probably prove remunerative 
but for the havoc caused by small birds. It is expected that event- 
ually a remedy will be found and that this will become a crop of 
importance. 

Beans and potatoes are grown in rather extensive acreages by a 
small number of farmers. The aggregate importance of these crops 
is still very small. 

Market gardening is engaged in almost exclusively by Italians and 
Asiatics, who cultivate small plots near the larger cities and towns. 
Most of the work is done by hand, with the aid of natives. Only 
occasionall}^ are some of the garden implements in evidence. 

Paspalum, Napier's fodder, manna, and other similar grasses are 
grow^n in some sections. Alfalfa is seen but seldom, but upward of 
25,000 acres of natural grasses are cut every year for hay. 

Cotton has so far failed to fulfill the expectations of those who 
some years ago thought that it would become one of the chief crops 
of the country. At the present time cotton is not grown anywhere 
in Southern Khodesia. 

Many farmers in favored sections are taking up the planting of 
fruit trees, and, while at present the yield is barely sufficient to 
meet the local demand, it is confidently expected that a considerable 
fruit export trade will eventually be built up. 

LIVE STOCK AND DAIRYING. 

Khodesia is essentially a stock-raising country. Indigenous, native 
cattle supply the foundation of stock, which is being improved by 
the introduction of European-bred bulls. The production of forage 
root crops and hay is increasingly believed to be essential for the 
success of stock farming. Climatic conditions are such that the cattle 
run night and day in camps undisturbed and free. 

Cattle thrive and are remarkably prolific in Rhodesia. In 1915 
there were 394,856 head of cattle in Southern Rhodesia ow^ned by 
Europeans and 446,070 owned by natives — a total of 840,926, com- 
pared with a total of 463,923 in 1911, according to thfe census taken 
that year. 

There are about half a dozen syndicates in Southern Rhodesia that 
have in recent years taken up cattle ranching on a very extensive 
scale with the ultimate purpose of establishing factories for the 
canning of meat and the manufacture of other beef products. The 
Liebig's Extract of Meat Co., of London, several years ago acquired 
more than 1,000,000 acres of land for this purpose. 

The production and sale of cream to butter factories is a com- 
paratively new industry in Rhodesia — so much so that the country 
still imports butter for its small white population. In the last five 
years, however, the imports of butter and cheese have been reduced 
by nearly one-half. While dairying will eventually become an im- 
portant industry, this will be restricted for some time at least to 
supplying the local demand. Primarily, beef in various forms is to 
be looked upon as Rhodesia's ^staple export to the world's markets. 



200 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEKY. 

FARM-MACHINERY TRADE. 

The imports of agricultural machinery and implements by South- 
ern Ehoclesia from all sources in recent years have been as follows: 
1908, $93,291; 1911, $162,945; 1912, $168,702; 1913, $260,027: 1914, 
$213,868; 1915, $123,765. These figures are exclusive of windmills, 
binding twine, fencing wire, pumps, traction engines, hay presses, and 
carts and carriages. The share contributed by the United States 
was $81,047 in 1914 and $48,894 in 1915. The United Kingdom con- 
tributed $109,287 and $65,902, respectively. 

It will be observed that the United Kingdom supplies a greater 
amount of farm machinery to Rhodesia than the United States. Two 
reasons chiefly account for this. As a rule the white population of 
Rhodesia is composed of British subjects, who, other things being 
equal, will purchase goods made in the United Kingdom. On the 
other hand, the extensive use of disk plows and disk harrows in Rho- 
desia (which machines as turned out by British factories are a good 
deal stronger and heavier than those produced in the United States) 
accounts for the fact that American sales of farm machiner}^ in 
Southern Rhodesia are not relatively as large as those in the Union of 
South Africa. 

Until the beginning of the war, the imports of this class of goods 
into Rhodesia showed a substantial increase every 3^ear. The figures 
for 1914 and 1915, therefore, can not be taken as representing the 
imports of normal times. As has been the case ever3^where else, 
farmers in Rhodesia have purchased only what they absolutely 
needed, and a considerable number of farmers left the country to 
enlist for the duration of the war. It is hoped, however, that when 
the war ends the demand for farm machinery will become fairly 
active. 

TYPES OF IMPLEMENTS USED. 

In general the remarks made in connection w^ith the t^q^es of farm 
machinery used in the Union of South Africa apply to Riiodesia. 
Only in a few respects do conditions in Rhodesia differ. 

Disk plows are more often used in Rhodesia than moldboard plows. 
Probably 75 per cent of the plowing there is done with disk plows. 
Three or four furrow disk plows are chiefly used. These are of the 
heavier types sold in South Africa and supplied by British firms. 

In the aggregate a large number of heavy gang plows are also used, 
which in the great majority of cases are purchased with the third 
bottom attachment. 

With the Rhodesian natives a fairly large trade is done in Ameri- 
can chilled walking plows. The European farmers who use single- 
furrow plows generally purchase the heavier types supplied by Amer- 
ican and English manufacturers. 

Disk harrows are seen on nearly every farm. The type most in 
favor is that manufactured by English firms. 

Almost without exception, the corn growers of Rhodesia use the 
American type of two-row corn planter, which, as a rule, is equipped 
wdth fertilizer attachment. Two, three, or four two-row planters 
are often worked in tandem, and various American manufacturers 
supply suitable forecarriages for this purpose, although in many 
cases these tandem forecarriages are manufactured locally. The de- 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 201 

mand for either three-row corn drills or single-row planters is very 
small. The latter, however, are sold in increasing quantities to the 
natives. 

The adoption of the arch cultivator has made greater strides anion cr 
Rhodesian farmers than among the farmers of the Union. Disk 
cultivators and other standard types of arch shovel cultivators are 
sold in Rhodesia in increasing numbers. The demand for this class 
of goods is certain to improve from year to year. 

The extensive employment of natives in farm work operates 
against the regular use of corn binders or corn pickers. It is likel3\ 
however, that Rhodesia will eventualh^ prove an easier market in 
which to sell these machines than any other section of South Africa. 
Generally speaking, Rhodesian farmers cultivate larger acreages of 
corn than their southern neighbors, and when they are shown that 
corn binders will more economically and expeditiously harvest corn, 
an active demand for these machines is likely to be rapidly estab- 
lished. A suitable machine to cut whole corn stalks at the base with- 
out cutting them into small pieces would be certain to interest a good 
many farmers of that country. 

In connection with the extensive ranching operations carried on in 
several parts of Rhodesia, a good many mowers and rakes are sold. 
These machines are used to cut the natural grasses to provide feed 
for the cattle when the pastures are deficient because of inadequate 
rainfall. 

A good many corn shellers are sold in Rhodesia. Shellers for 
individual use are sold extensively, as well as a good number of the 
large outfits supplied by British firms. The country offers relatively 
good possibilities for the sale of corn-shelling machinery. 

As indicated in the report covering the Union of South Africa, 
steel trucks are in increasing demand in Rhodesia, and the possibili- 
ties of that market for this class of goods deserves the attention of 
American manufacturers. 

TRADE METHODS AND OUTLOOK. 

There are several direct importers of farm machinery in Souti. ./n 
Rhodesia. In a few cases such goods are sold by branches of firms 
in the Union of South Africa, whereas in others a large business is 
done by firms acting as agents for farm-machinery importers in the 
Union, this latter method of doing business being rather preferred 
because of the uncertainty always confronting Rhodesian merchants 
as to the probable demand for this class of goods. 

It is felt that the information herein given regarding the agricul- 
tural outlook of Southern Rhodesia and the present demand for 
farm machinery will enable American farm-machinery manufac- 
turers to appreciate that the countr3% in itself, does not offer at 
this time an}^ particular inducement warranting special efforts to 
increase their business. The trade of Rhodesia must, for many years, 
remain closely associated with that of the Union of South Africa. 
Representatives of American firms in South Africa should visit Rho- 
desia about once every year, and those who may make only a periodi- 
cal tour of South Africa will do well to ascertain by correspondence 
the advisability^ of including that territory in their itinerary. 



202 AGRICULTUKAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

NORTHERN RHODESIA. 

Since 1899 the various territories now known as Northern Rho- 
desia have been administered by the British South Africa Co. The 
territory embraces an area of 290,000 square miles^ and in 1911 it 
had a population of 1,427 Europeans and about 800,000 natives. The 
present white population is estimated at about 2,000, giving a pro- 
portion of 400 natives to every white person in the country. 

CLIMATE AND RAINFALL. 

Northern Rhodesia, for the greater part, is a continuation of the 
high South African plateau, which extends from the Karroo, in 
Cape Province, through Southern Rhodesia, to the north of the 
Zambezi. The altitude of the farming country varies from 3,000 to 
4,000 feet. 

As regards its climate, it may be said that its altitude makes up 
for its proximity to the Equator. The country along the railwa}^ line 
is for the most part higher than the Zambezi Valley and is propor- 
tionately more healthful and suitable for European settlement. The 
climate, however, is open to objection on the score of infectious dis- 
eases, but those who take suitable precautions have little to fear. Good 
living and good housing are the two chiei necessities, as well as 
suitable protection by netting and proper drainage. The rainfall 
varies from 25 to 50 inches. It increases toward the eastern districts, 
where it is adequate for all agricultural purposes. To the west the 
rainfall becomes much smaller^ as is the case in the western districts 
of Southern Rhodesia and the Union of South x\frica. Northern 
Rhodesia, however, is more favored in respect to rainfall than is 
Southern Rhodesia. 

TRADING CENTERS. 

Livingstone, with a European population of 400, is the largest 
town in Northern Rhodesia and the seat of administration. Along 
the railway line to the Kongo border are a number of very small 
towns, such as Kafue and Broken Hill, where some trading is also 
done. In the northeast, about 260 miles from the railway head. Fort 
Jameson is the only town of any importance. 

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 

The imports into Northern Rhodesia amounted to $705,880 in 1911 
and $745,480 in 1915, and the exports to $523,430 and $586,501, re- 
spectively. The principal imports are flour, furniture, fencing wire, 
hardware, bicycles, and agricultural and mining machinery, and the 
exports consist chiefly of cattle, corn, hides and skins, tobacco, ivory, 
cotton, and horns. Imports from the United States amounted to 
$20,006 in 1915. No figures giving the exports to this country are 
available. 

MINERAL RESOURCES. 

The territory is said to have considerable mineral deposits. Copper 
is known to exist in great quantities. Nitrates, saltpeter, and lime 
are also mined. Owing to the fact that general prospecting has 
been possible only since the promulgation of a law that went into 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 203 

effect in April, 1911, little is definitely known concerning the mining 
possibilities. Copper is alread}^ being mined in different sections, 
the deposits at Bwana M'Kubwa and in the region of the Kafue 
River being of great richness and enormous extent. A large deposit 
of lead and zinc is also being developed at Broken Hill. 

RAILWAY AND OTHER TRANSPORTATION. 

With the exception of the railway from Livingstone to the Kongo 
border. Northern Rhodesia has no railways. Oxen transportation is 
resorted to extensively, but owing to the presence of the tsetse fly 
msmj rich farming sections can not be reached at all by that means. 
The use of the motor car and motor truck will probably be adopted 
in these places, but the high cost of fuel in these remote parts of 
Africa will prove a disadvantage. 

DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS. 

The territory under the control of the British South Africa Co. 
is so enormous in extent that it has been intimated lately that the 
policy of that company is to discourage the settlement of Northern 
Rhodesia whenever the intending settlers can be persuaded to settle 
in Southern Rhodesia. The project to establish one administration 
for both Southern and Northern Rhodesia, with headquarters at 
Salisburj^, is an indication that the alleged policy may be definitely 
adopted. As long as no better inducements can be offered to attract 
settlers in large numbers, it might be preferable to w^ork toward 
concentration in Southern Rhodesia instead of allowing the entire 
country to become thinly populated with the result that the settlers 
in the more remote parts w^ill be handicapped with inadequate trans- 
portation, education, and other necessary facilities. 

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Northern Rhodesia offers splendid prospects in connection with 
farming. The land is extremely fertile, and it will produce crops 
of all kinds. Mixed farming, consisting of cattle and pig breeding 
and corn and citrus-fruit growing, seems to be the goal of those who 
have taken up farming there. Cotton and tobacco also offer promis- 
ing prospects in various districts. For the growing of fiber-yielding 
plants, Northern Rhodesia is excellently well suited, but, as is the 
case with farming in general, the success and the growth of this 
industry depend on the cost and facilities of transportation to sea- 
port and thence to the over-sea markets. 

LAND SETTLEMENT— LABOR. 

No statistics are available regarding the area of land so far taken 
up for agricultural and pastoral purposes. In all probability, how- 
ever, 1,000,000 acres have been taken up thus far by European 
farmers, of which possibly less than 25,000 acres have been placed 
under cultivation. The number of farmers in Northern Rhodesia 
probably does not exceed 150. The farms are generally of from 2,000 
to 4,000 acres, and the price of land ranges from $0.65 to $2 per 
acre, according to soil and situation. 



204 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

MANNER OF ACQUIRING LAND. 

Land is granted under a permit of occupation covering a period 
of 5 years, which may be extended to 10 5^ears. The annual rent is 
6 per cent of the purchase price. No rent is collected until the end of 
the second year, when the second year's rent and one-quarter of tlie 
first year's rent become due. Thereafter one-quarter of the first 
year's rent falls due annually, so that the annual payments for the 
second, third, fourth, and. fifth years consist of one year's rent plus 
one-quarter of the first year's rent. The tenant may at any time dur- 
ing the first or second term of 6 years pay the purchase price, or 
make payments on account by half-yearly installments of not less 
than one-tenth of the purchase price, thereby reducing the annual 
rent. At the end of the 5 or 10 years, the purchase price having been 
paid and the occupation conditions satisfactorily fulfilled, the tenant 
is granted final title. Thereafter there is an annual quitrent of $0,25 
for every 50 acres. 

CHIEF FARMING AREAS. 

The best farming areas in Northern Rhodesia are situated along 
and in the vicinity of the railway line between Livingstone and 
Mwcmbcshi. Farther north there are also large areas of territory 
with well-watered and rich soil, but they are infested with tsetse fly. 
It is believed that dependence will have to be placed on steam and 
motor driven implements to develop that territory agriculturally, 
since oxen can not be used for such purposes on account of the 
tsetse fly. 

Kafue is the chief farming center of Northern Rhodesia. Within 
a radius of 50 miles of that town, all the elements necessary to suc- 
cessful farming are present. North of Kafue the presence of the 
tsetse fi}^ often operates against the utilization of the land for farm- 
ing. South of the farming belt indicated, the soil is relatively poor 
and the rainfall inadequate, Avhich is also the case west of Kafue. 
Cotton has been grown in the Kafue districts with satisfactory results 
for a number of years, but the industry is net making rapid progress, 
doubtless because of the difficulties of settlement. In time cotton 
should constitute one of the leading crops of Northern Rhodesia. 
The farmers in the Kafue district at present are chiefly engaged in 
cattle raising and corn growing. 

In northeastern Rhodesia the farming area is limited at present, 
owing to the present of the tsetse fly. The country suitable for this 
purpose is practically confined to the sections in the neighborhood 
of Fort Jameson and the Tanganyika Plateau. Seventy-five farms 
have so far been taken up there. About 5,000 acres have already 
been planted with cotton, and in the season of 1915 about 500,000 
pounds of tobacco were reaped in the Fort Jameson district. Stock 
raising has proved successful, and several thousand head of cattle 
have already been shipped to Southern Rhodesia. The chief diffi- 
culty on the Tanganyika Plateau, and to a less extent in the Fort 
Jameson district, is the transport question. Fort Jameson is 230 
miles from Tete, a river port on the Zambesi, and 260 miles from 
Blantyre, the nearest railway head. The movement of cattle (at 
present the only means of transportation) is attended with great 
risks, travel through tsetse-fly-infested regions being often un- 
avoidable. 



MARKETS IX SOirild AFRICA, 205 

PRINCIPAL DIFFICULTIES. 

The ravages of the tsetse fly and the inadequate transportation 
facilities are the chief deterring factors in connection with the agri- 
cultural progress of Northern Rhodesia. Scientists have some knowl- 
ledge of the breeding habits of the fly and the way in which it carries 
disease, but have as yet found no method of controlling its spread 
and no certain cure for the disease it conveys. It is believed, how- 
ever, that the presence of big game operates against freeing the 
country of the fly. Experiments are now being made to fence a large 
area of land and exterminate the game within that f snce. If these 
experiments prove a success, one of the chief drawbacks will have 
been eliminated. It must be noted that the tsetse fly has occasion- 
ullj been found to be a carrier of disease to man, and sleeping sick- 
ness is certainly a disease to guard against. 

Farming in Northern Rhodesia at the present time presents a great 
many difiiculties to the small settler. The country, however, offers 
man}^ inducements to large companies with capital sufficient to make 
possible the use of mechanical means of w^orking the soil, as well as 
for the transportation of the crops to the railway. The supply of 
labor is ampla. Wages for ordinary native labor vary from $2 to 
$4 per month; drivers are paid from $10 to $20 per month. The 
administration has announced that after the war the native's hut tax 
will be increased to $2.50, which, it is expected, will cause a greater 
number of natives to offer themselves for farm wT)rk. 

STOCK RAISING. 

Cattle raising has achieved considerable success in the different 
sections of Northern Rhodesia that have proved immune to the tsetse 
fly. With the admixture of imported breeding stock very fine herds 
are coming to maturity. A good many valuable shipments of 
slaughter cattle, as well as corn, are already being made to the Bel- 
gian Kongo to supply the needs of the increasing and well-paid 
white and native population employed in the enormously rich copper 
mines of the Katanga district. The total Avhite population of that 
district was 747 in 1911, 1,760 in 1912, and 2,500 in 1913, which is 
an index of the rapid progress of mining there and of the increasing 
demand for produce from Rhodesia. Slaughter cattle are also 
shipped in increasing quantities to Bulawayo and Johannesburg. 

FARM-MACHINERY TRADE. 

The declared imports of agricultural machinery and implements 
into Northern Rhodesia are unimportant in value. Since the opening 
up of the country these have never exceeded $25,000 per annum. 
This is indicative of the present small importance of Northern Rho- 
desia as regards the farm-machinery business. It is not improbable, 
however, that n number of farm machines are shipped to that terri- 
tory from Southern Rhodesia, which are not included in the import 
returns. The fact must be considered that whatever agricultural 
work is done in the sections of Northern Rhodesia that are not 
I'eached by railways is done Avith the use of hand labor exclusively, 
without even oxen-drawn implements. Oxen can not be used there 
because of the presence of the tsetse fly. This pest will, no doubt, 
retreat as settlement advances. The advent of the small tractor 



206 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

should make possible considerable agricultural development, as its 
employment would make farmers independent of oxen for draft pur- 
poses. If the country should attract large numbers of farmers after 
the war, manufacturers of small farm tractors might be justified in 
making efforts to introduce their machines in Northern Rhodesia. 
The number of farmers noy? in that country would hardly warrant 
such action at present. 

Northern Rhodesian farmers have moved thither either from the 
Union of South Africa or Southern Rhodesia. It follows, there- 
fore, that in the great majority of cases, when implements are used, 
these are of the types most in vogue in the countries in which the 
owners formerly farmed. As already indicated, corn is the principal 
cultivated crop, which is grown as in other parts of South Africa. 
As in Southern Rhodesia, disk plows appear to be in greater favor 
than moldboard plows. 

Livingstone is the only town in which stocks of implements are 
carried. In the majority of cases the houses there are branches of 
Southern Rhodesia firms, although in one or two cases goods are 
imported direct by merchants in that town. The demand is so verj^ 
small that it will not be necessary, for many years to come, for repre- 
sentatives of American manufacturers of farm machinery to visit 
Northern Rhodesia. 



VIII. PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA. 

Portuguese East Africa extends through 16 degrees of latitude 
from 11° to 27° south. The area of the country is 293.000 square 
miles, and its coast line is more than 1,000 miles long.. The popula- 
tion is estimated at about 18.000 whites and 3,120^000 natives. The 
majority of whites are of Portuguese stock. In Lourenco Marques 
there are 700 British subjects and in Beira about 250. Before the 
present war a relatively large number of Germans resided in the 
country. Small traders are mostly British Indians, there being prob- 
ably 2,000 persons of that nationality in the country. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

The country is a Portuguese colony composed of three distinct 
entities — (1) the province of Mozambique, (2) the Companhia de 
Mozambique's territory, and (3) the Companhia do Nyassa's terri- 
tory. The two companies mentioned hold charters from the Portu- 
guese Government, and the administration of their respective terri- 
tories is entirely separate from, and independent in every respect of, 
the province of Mozambique. The province of Mozambique is admin- 
istered b}^ a governor general, who is appointed by the Portuguese 
Government and is assisted by a colonial council. The two chartered 
companies appoint their own governors, subject to the approval of 
the Portuguese Government. 

There are a number of companies in Portuguese East Africa to 
which large concessions of land have been made and which could 
almost be called subcharter companies. These are locally designated 
as " prazos " (large agricultural estates), in which the natives culti- 
vate various crops for the beneht of the European leaseholders, who 
also act as tax collectors and can claim the taxes either in labor or in 
produce. The Companhia de Zambesia, the Companhia do Boror, 
and the Societe du Madal are among the most important companies 
under this category. 

The word " Mozambique " in connection with Portuguese East 
Africa occurs in five different and sejDarate designations_, as follows: 
(1) The province of Mozambique, the official name of one of the 
three political entities of Portuguese East Africa; (2) the Mozam- 
bique Co.'s territory, the official name of another of the three entities ; 

(3) the district of Mozambique, equivalent to a " county,'' which is a 
part of the fiscal territory of the province of Mozambique, of which 

(4) the town of Mozambique is the capital: and (5) the word 
•' Mozambique " is used by some writers when referring to Portuguese 
East Africa as a whole. 

LANGUAGE, CURRENCY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 

Portuguese is the official language of the country, but owing to 
the large influx of British subjects in the principal cities English is 
widely understood. The importation of farm machinery is chiefly 

207 



208 AGRICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEEY. 

in the hands of British firms. The escudo (the new name of the 
Portuguese milreis) is nominally equivalent to $1.08 United States 
currencj^ The actual average value of the paper currency for the 
year 1914 was $0.86. In this report the .official rate of $1.08 to the 
escudo has been used in making conversions of foreign-trade sta- 
tistics. English currency is legal tender throughout Portuguese 
East Africa. Not only is the bulk of business done in terms of 
English gold but the provincial revenue from hut taxes, labor emi- 
gration, and customs duties is collected in gold. The metric system 
is in vogue, but in connection with the sale of farm machinery there 
is no need of altering the specifications used in the United States. 

PHYSICAL FEATURES. 

Portuguese East Africa abounds in well-watered, alluvial plains 
favored with both a tropical and semitropical climate, making it a 
country of great and varied possibilities. 

The coast lands are very low and swampy, having for this reason 
little economic value. Malarial fever and other tropical diseases are 
prevalent along most of the coast, except Lourengo Marques and 
Beira, in Avhich cities much has been done to make them healthful for 
European settlers. These swampy lands, hoAvever, are seldom of 
great width. North of the Zambezi the country rises rapidly toward 
the west. In the south the ascent is more gradual. When the high 
altitudes are reached there is nothing that should deter European set- 
tlers, if only common-sense sanitary precautions are taken. 

The opinion prevails abroad that Portuguese East Africa is a 
country in which fever is rampant and which is generall}^ unhealth- 
ful for the Avhite race. It would be erroneous to include the entire 
countr}^ under that category, for even in the low-lying country and 
in the marshy districts conditions are not as unsatisfactory as is gen- 
t^rally believed. Fever is yearly diminishing as proper drainage is 
adopted and the settlers recognize the value of good cover at night 
and of proper living. 

Portuguese East Africa is endowed with a wonderful river system. 
The whole of the great plateau of central and South Africa, east of 
the divide that separates the Kongo and the Zambezi, is drained into 
that countr}^ These rivers are not torrential but flow slowly through 
valleys that they have themselves built up with the large alluvial 
deposits borne upon their waters. There are several navigable rivers 
in Portuguese East Africa, which, considering the limited width of 
the country, constitute an economic asset of great importance. The 
Zambezi, Shire, Buzi, and other rivers are navigable for many miles. 

CHIEF PORTS. 

The principal ports of Portuguese East Africa are Lourenco 
Marques, Beira, Ibo, Porto Amelia, Mozambique, Quelimane, Chinde, 
and Inhambane. The countrj^ is served by several steamship lines 
operating around the Cape of Good Hope, which by so doing avoid 
paying the heavy tolls of the Suez Canal. Portuguese East Africa's 
coast contains the natural ports for the Transvaal, Southern and 
Northern Rhodesia, British Nyassaland, and the vast region center- 
ing on Lake Nyassa. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 209 

RAILWAYS. 

The Delagoa Bay Railway, 57 miles in length, connects Lonrenco 
Marques, or Delagoa Bay, as its port is called, with Pretoria. The 
Beira Railway, 204 miles long, connects Beira with the Rhodesian 
border, where at Umtali it joins the main Rhodesian line. A line 
from Chai Chai, near the mouth of the Limpopo River, to Nan- 
jacasi has 32 miles in operation, and that from Mutamba to Inhar- 
rime 25 miles. The construction of the line from Lourenco Marques 
to the Swaziland border, 47 miles in length, which is to meet the 
Breyten extension from Johannesburg and which is built to shorten 
the railway from Delagoa Bay to Johannesburg by 60 miles, has been 
completed. The work on the Transvaal section, however, is still in 
abeyance. A line is projected from Beira nortliAvard to Port Herald 
in Nyassaland. 

PROVINCE OF MOZAMBIQUE. 

The province of Mozambique has an area of about 160,000 square 
miles and a population of 16,000 whites, 2,000 Asiatics, and more 
than 1,000,000 natives. Its capital and chief trading center is 
Lourenco Marques, with a population of 6,000 whites. The harbor 
of this port is regarded as the best in South Africa, being 25 miles 
long and 22 miles broad. 

This province is divided into five different districts, namely, 
LourenQo Marques and Inhambane in the south, and Quelimane, 
Tete, and Mozambique in the north, situated betAveen the Mozam- 
bique Co. and the Nyassa Co. territories. In other words, the 
province is separated into two parts, the territory of the Mozambique 
Co. lying between its two southern and three northern districts. 

MINERAL RESOURCES. 

There are immense coal deposits in the neighborhood of Tete and 
near Lourenco Marques, and adjoining the coal fields ironstone of 
the best quality is plentiful. Malachite and copper are found in 
certain parts of the interior. The whole of the region north of 
Lourenco Marques as far as the Zambezi and inland to and beyond 
the Portuguese frontier is auriferous. 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 

American Consul George A. Chamberlain, of Lourengo Marques, 
aptly describes the economic position of the province of Mozambique 
and the limited development of its industries when he says : " The 
prosperity of commerce throughout the province in general depends 
almost entirely on the buying power of the native, and his bu^dng 
power is derived almost exclusively from money earned in the 
Johannesburg mines, in its total a large sum, which, in spite of the 
war, continues to increase." 

In 1914 all imports into the province of Mozambique, through its 
several ports, reached the sum of $8,609,124 and the exports, includ- 
ing domestic and foreign nationalized products, $2,197,527. Of the 
imports $305,381 worth were supplied by the United States, of which 

1276°— 17— No. 146 14 



210 AGRICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 



),587 represented machinery of several kinds, including agricul- 
tural machinery. This indicates the limited advance made by the 
agricultural industry of the country and the unimportance of this 
market for American manufacturers of farm machinery. However, 
English and Dutch farmers near the Transvaal border frequently 
purchase their machinery from salesmen representing firms in Pre- 
toria or Johannesburg. 

The exports of local produce in 1914 were valued at $1,942,684, 
contributed by the various districts as follows: Lourenco Marques, 
$482,900; Inliambane, $448,872; Quelimane, $219,874 through the 
port of Chinde and $405,518 through the port of Quelimane ; Mozam- 
bique, $385,515. 

LOURENgO MARQUES DISTRICT. 

The trade of the port of Lourengo Marques is almost confined to 
the requirements of the town itself, the distribution of Kafir truck, 
and the transit trade of the Transvaal, of which it is the natural 
port. The interior of this vast district is in great measure unde- 
veloped. Lourengo Marques is the principal receiving station for 
native labor recruited for the Transvaal mines. Commercial activi- 
ties in that city are largely controlled by British firms. 

The rainfall averages 27 inches in the town of Lourengo Marques. 
The district, on the whole, is well watered and it has also enormous 
expanses of most fertile soil. The chief exports of produce from this 
district, in 1914, were as follows: Beans, $62,726; hides and skins, 
$17,235; peanuts, $63,687; whale oil, $28,908; and sugar, $256,449. 
As these figures indicate, very little agricultural progress has been 
made so far. Sugar growing, however, is making rapid strides. The 
district is well suited for the cultivation of many and varied crops. 
The cultivation of corn, fruit, and alfalfa offers promising prospects. 

INHAMBANE DISTRICT. 

At Inhambane the rainfall ranges from 27 to 63 inches. The north- 
ern part of this district is almost destitute of rivers, but it has a 
greater rainfall than the southern sections. A very fertile strip of 
land about 50 miles in width borders the coast of the Inhambane dis- 
trict. Many dry valleys, where black alluvial soil has accuniiilated 
for centuries, are found there. This district's chief exports of pro- 
duce in 1914 were as follows: Copra, $25,254; fertilizer, whale, 
$31,836; mafureira (oil seed), $26,579; peanuts, $66,852; whale oil, 
$234,917; sugar, $39,696. , 

QUELIMANE DISTRICT. 

Quelimane is called the " garden of the coast." It has a greater 
rainfall than any other section of Portuguese East Africa, and it is a 
land of many rivers and mountains. The rainfall in some sections 
is as high as 70 inches. Through the port of Chinde this district 
exported in 1914 the following produce: Raw cotton, $21,528; pea- 
nuts, $28,351; sugar, $93,667; and wax, $30,398. Through the port 
of Quelimane the exports were: Agave, $60,300; copper, $264,333: 
peanuts, $44,270; and sugar, $23,597. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 211 

TETE DISTRICT. 

Tete has the reputation of being a dry and rocky country. It is 
remote from the coast, and farmers are not likely to take an interest 
in the district until they are crowded out of the fertile regions nearer 
the sea and civilization. 

MOZAMBIQUE DISTRICT. 

The district of Mozambique has a rliinfall of 20 inches along the 
coast, which increases to probably 70 inches in the highlands. The 
country is intersected with numerous rivers and streams. Some of the 
natives in this district were hostile to Europeans until a few years 
ago, and the country can scarcely be said to have been open for settle- 
ment, though the Portuguese by peaceful penetration have gradually 
established their outposts farther inland. The present population 
of the Mozambique district is 570 whites, 550 Asiatics, and something 
over 500,000 natives. The produce exported by this district in 1914 
was as follows: Indian corn, $98,400; Kafir beans, $29,026; Kafir 
corn, $28,329; mangrove bark, $22,080; peanuts, $142,544; sesame. 
$24,082. 

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

With the exception of sugar-cane cultivation, agricultural condi- 
tions in the province of Mozambique are even to-day exceedingly 
backward. The agricultural exports of the province have been very 
small so far. There are no statistics available concerning the acreage 
under cultivation and the number of farmers who have taken up 
land there. If these figures were obtainable it would doubtless be 
found that verv little a 2"r^ cultural work has been done by white 
farmers up to the present time. Whatever agricultural development 
has taken place is due to the natives, who use the most primitive 
methods in tilling and cultivating the land. 

Signs of improvement have been discerned in the past few years, 
and undoubtedly the country is endowed with many of the necessary 
advantages to become a great and rich agricultural producer. The 
rainfall is usually ample and the soil most fertile and productive 
when properly cultivated. 

Some large blocks of land have been taken up during the last three 
years in the Umbeluzi Valley for cattle raising on a large scale, and 
the Government's experimental farm at Umbeluzi has been import- 
ing pedigreed stock, w^hich is loaned to farmers for breeding pur- 
poses. 

During 1915 approximately 1,500 oxen were imported into the 
southern districts from the Union of South Africa for slaughtering 
purposes. In view of the enormous extent of the grazing lands of 
the province, estimated at many millions of acres, it is regrettable 
that it should be still necessary to import slaughter oxen. This indi- 
cates what little progress has been made even in the pastoral devel- 
opment of the country. 

PRINCIPAL CROPS GROWN. 

As the export figures indicate, little effort has so far been made in 
the cultivation of crops by Europeans; therefore, the following infor- 



212 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

mation should be taken only as indicating the chief crops for which 
the country is suitable. 

The province of Mozambique is advantageously situated for the 
production of maize. It has an ample rainfall during the growing 
season, as well as a favorable season for harvesting. 

The cultivation of sisal hemp offers great possibilities, and in the 
districts of Lourengo Marques, Inhambane, and Quelimane a start 
is being made with this crop. 

Along the Incomati River ifi the Lourenco Marques district a good 
deal of progress has been made in recent years in connection with 
sugar grooving. The Incomati Sugar Estates (Ltd.) started crushing 
in 1914, and several thousand tons of sugar are already produced 
annually. In the district of Quelimane, on the northern banks of the 
Zambezi, sugar is also produced in increasing quantities. 

Tobacco is grown in the Umbeluzi Valley, near Lourenco Marques, 
and in the districts of Quelimane, Tete, and Inhambane. The pro- 
duction so far has barely sufficed to supply the local demand for 
cigarette manufacture. The wide range of soils and climate provides 
opportunity for growing a large number of tobacco varieties. 

Cotton has been successfully grown in small quantities in the Queli- 
mane and Mozambique districts. When the transportation difficulties 
are overcome, and as the country becomes more actively developed, 
cotton will undoubtedly become one of the most extensively grown 
crops. 

It is estimated that there are 2,500,000 acres of Landolphia rubber 
forest in the province of Mozambique, carrying rubber worth at least 
$150 per acre. The expense and difficulties at present attached to 
gathering the rubber and the low prices prevailing in the European 
markets have so far prevented the working of these forests on an 
extensive scale. 

The production of copra, obtainable from coconuts, is relatively an 
important industry. The district of Quelimane leads all others in 
the output of copra, having 2,500,000 coconut trees. 

Oil seeds, such as peanuts, sesame, and mafureira (Trichilla eme- 
tica) are produced throughout the territory and constitute important 
items of export. The present difficulties and cost of harvesting and 
the inadequate means of transportation militate against increased 
production. 

FARM-MACHINERY TRADE. 

Figures are not available upon which to review the extent of the 
use and importation of farm machinerj^ into the province of Mo- 
zambique. The imports of farm machinery are merged with those of 
industrial and other machinery. The imports of machinery of all 
classes through the port of Lourenco Marques amounted to $226,655 
in 1914, to which the United States contributed $56,587. The imports 
of machinery of all kinds from the United States in 1914 through the 
other ports were as follows: Inhambane, $6,120; Quelimane, $2,456; 
Mozambique, $348. The other ports of this Province do not show that 
machinery of any kind was imported from the United States during 
that year. 

These figures indicate that the imports of farm machinery at the 
present time must be exceedingly small. Through the port of Lou- 
renco Marques a relatively large number of farm machines are un- 
doubtedly imported, but these, in many cases, are for reshipment to 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 213 

the eastern districts of the Transvaal, which on account of their prox- 
imity to Lourengo Marques constitute a field of activity for the mer- 
chants located in that city. 

The European farmers located in the district of Lourenco Marques, 
for the most part, have gone there from other sections of South 
Africa. When farm machines are used, therefore, these are usually 
such as are in vogue in the Union. 

In time the province of Mozambique ought to prove a good field 
for the sale of farm machinery. Its agricultural potentialities are 
too great to be much longer neglected, and even now a great deal of 
interest is being manifested in the devising of ways and means to 
foster their rapid development. An upward movement in the use of 
farm machinery should be discernible from now on. 

MOZAMBIQUE CO.'S TERRITORY. 

The territory of the Companhia de Mozambique extends from the 
Zambezi River in the north to 22° in the south. Its western boundai'y 
is Rhodesia. It covers an area of about 65,000 square miles. Its 
charter from the Portuguese Government empowers the company to 
administer the country for 50 years from May 17, 1897. The admin- 
istration is vested in a Governor appointed b}^ the company and ap- 
proved by the Portuguese Government. Its Board of Directors is 
located at Lisbon, and committees are maintained at London and 
Paris. There were 287,601 persons in the territory in 1914, of whom 
2,051 were whites, 1,025 Asiatics, 1,543 half-caste, and 282,982 
negroes. 

Beira is the headquarters of the administration and the chief trad- 
ing center; it has a population of 9,419, of whom 1,197 are whites. 
It is also the natural port of entry for Rhodesia and the southern 
districts of the Kongo. The construction of the railway from that 
city to Umtali, on the Rhodesian border, in 1896 marks the beginning 
of its development and that of its rich hinterland. 

RAINFALL. 

The average rainfall in the farming districts is about 50 inches: 
it is greater along the coast. Along the Zambezi River the rainfall 
varies from 25 to 50 inches, decreasing as the river is ascended. 
The entire country is well watered and is not subject to droughts. 
The rainfall from November to April, the maize-growing season, 
averages 38 inches. For the other six months the average rainfall 
is sometimes less than 5 inches. January and February are the 
wettest months. Such an abundant rainfall during the early stages 
of the crop often prevents proper cultivation and encourages the 
early growth of weeds. Near Beira the rainfall averages 57 inches. 
March is the wettest month. Avith an average of 16 inches. 

FOREIGN TRADE. 

The imports and exports for the years 1913, 1914, and 1915 were 
as follows: 



Trade. 1913 1914 1915 



jmportS $3, 049, 181 $2, 229, 765 $1, 872, 818 

*-XPO"S 2, 704, 899 I 2, 569, 114 2,096,362 



1913 


1914 


$3,049,181 
2, 704, 899 


$2,229,765 
2, 569, 114 



214 AGEICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

The imports are chiefly cotton goods, grain bags, railway mate- 
rial, oils, spirits, agricultural and industrial machinery, wearing 
apparel, and iron and steel. The principal exports in 1914 were: 
Sugar, $1,280,468; gold bars, $317,537; corn, $232,417; peanuts. 
$42,000; mangrove bark. $34,540; and raw cotton, $20,683. The 
quantity of sugar exported in 1915 was about 35,000 tons, nearly 
twice the quantity shipped in 1911. The exports of corn in 1915 
w^ere about 200.000 bags, nearly four times as much as in 1911. 

The imports from the United States in recent years have been as 
folloAvs: 1913, $292,622; 1914, $175,317; 1915, $213,512. Machinery, 
lumber, iron and steel, flour, and oils are the principal articles 
imported. 

TRADE PROSPECTS. 

The decline in trade during^ the years 1914 and 1915 is to be 
attributed solely to the effects of the war. The withdrawal of Ger- 
man shipping, which in normal times was nearly equal in tonnage to 
that of Great Britain, is one of the chief reasons why the trade has 
not been maintained at the same high level since the war started. 
The country possesses great economic prospects, and with the efforts 
of the government to develop its resources the trade should show 
considerable increases when normal conditions again prevail. 

By comparing the trade of the Mozambique Co.'s territory with 
that of the other sections of Portuguese East Africa, it will be seen 
that this territory is much the largest producer of agricultural prod- 
ucts. Its premier position in this respect is enhanced by the fact of 
the small area it occupies. 

MINING. 

Mining in the Mozambique Co.'s territory is not as important a 
factor in the development of its resources as is the case in other 
parts of South Africa. The district of Macequece, however, is w^ell 
know^n as a mining center, being rich in reef and alluvial gold. The 
exports of gold bars in 1914 were valued at $317,537. This industry 
has shown a steady advance since its inception, and considerable min- 
ing wealth undoubtedly remains to be developed. 

DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

Agriculture is without doubt the mainstay of the territory and 
iiestined during the next few years to assume enormous proportions. 
Owing to the rich soil, abundant rainfall, and favorable climate, a 
number of tropical and subtropical products can be successfully culti- 
vated. The principal crops grown by Europeans are maize, sugar 
cane, and coconuts. The natives produce increasing quantities of 
cotton, maize, millet, beans, peanuts, rice, and tobacco. 

The development of agriculture is undoubtedly the chief aim of 
the Mozambique Co. Thanks to its energetic and sympathetic policy, 
the exports of farm produce are already important and varied. The 
interest and system with which the company fosters this develop- 
ment are almost unapproached in any other section of South Africa. 
Very intelligent regulations have been enacted to prevent holding 
up the land for speculative purposes. A certain acreage under cul- 
tivation and the keeping of a number of cattle are necessary requi- 
sites before the land can be purchased. Provided these regulations 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA.' 215 

are observed, ver}^ good land can still be obtained at very losv prices 
on liberal terms of payment. 

To stimulate agriculture the govei-nment has arranged for farmers 
to pa}^ 50 per cent of the cost of native labor emploj^ed, after the 
harvest ; seeds are also supplied to be paid for at that time. Cattle 
to improve the herds, or for draft purposes, are sold by the govern- 
ment to be paid for in 6, 9, and 12 months installments. The supply- 
ing of bulls for breeding purposes and advances for the erection of 
dipping tanks are other facilities extended to farmers. XatiA'es for 
agricultural work are paid about $4.50 each per month. The supply 
is plentiful and efficient. The company maintains a department of 
agriculture and two experimental farms. The well-qualified officials 
of these institutions pay numerous visits to the agricultural centers, 
advising farmers concerning the best methods of cultivating their 
crops. 

Contrary to the experience of farmers in certain other parts of 
South Africa, those who have taken up agriculture in this territorj^ 
appear to be thoroughly contented and doing exceedingly well. 
Many cases of almost astonishing success are known. Farm.ers who 
started five vears ago with a capital of $500 are reputed to be worth 
to-day $3,000 or more. 

The principal farming centers and their altitudes are: Bandula, 
2,395 feet; Yanduzi, 2,096 feet; Chimoio, 2.229 feet; Mandegos. 2,303 
feet: Gondola. 2,030 feet; Siluvu Hills, 452 feet; Villa Machado. 182 
feet; and Muda. 36 feet. All these centers are well serA^ed by railway 
stations and sidings, with post and telegraph offices always handy. 

AREA OF LAND CULTIVATED. 

In 1910 (exclusive of sugar cane) there were 11,600 acres of land 
cultivated by 85 white farmers. In 1914 the acreage under cultiva- 
tion was 37,500 acres and the number of farmers 210. There are, in 
addition, many thousands of acres cultiA'^ated b}- the natives, who, on 
the whole, appear to be more industrious and thrifty than the natives 
of other sections of South Africa. The land on both sides of the 
Beira -Rhodesia Eailway line is divided into blocks belonging alter- 
nately to the Mozambique Co. and the Beira Railway. 

The following figures show the progressive development of the 
territory in connection with the leasing of land for development : 



Years. 



Acres. 

I9n 90,348 

1912 103, 500 

1913 226,005 

1914 186. 477 

1915 (to Sept. 30) 



On per- 
petual 
lease. 



Acres. 
45, 295 
33, 610 
67,500 
68, 570 
39,971 



ACQUISITION OF LAND. 



According to its charter the Mozambique Co. is the owner of 
all lands, subject to the condition that all titles issued shall vState 
that a ({uitrent of 10 reis (about 1 cent) per hectare (2.471 acres) shall 



216 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

be payable to the State per annum at the termination of the 
charter. Land is leased for two years at an annual rental of about 
2 cents per hectare, with the understanding that 5 per cent of the 
area is brought under cultivation. When this condition is fulfilled 
land can be secured on the basis of perpetual lease at an annual 
rental fixed upon the lease title. Land can be obtained as freehold 
upon payment of a sum equal to 20 years' annual rent. The usual 
size of a farm is 1,000 hectares (2,471 acres). 

AGRICULTURE ON THE ZAMBEZL 

Agriculture on the Zambezi River (which crosses Portuguese East 
Africa for nearly 600 miles and forms the boundaries of the Mozam- 
bique Co.'s territory and that of the northern districts of the province 
of Mozambique), as well as its tributary, the Shire River, is and 
will be preeminentl}^ associated with sugar-cane growing, which in- 
dustry is capable of considerable development owing to the rich 
alluvial deposits along the banks and the extensive facilities for 
irrigation. Cotton and tobacco also offer great possibilities. Corn, 
sisal, rubber, rice, peanuts, and coffee may also be expected to claim 
a place among the products. At the present time, however, the 
country the river traverses is not altogether suitable for small set- 
tlers, unless grouped together in one fertile locality and cooperat- 
ing in the employment of labor-saving machinery and the estab- 
lishment of central factories. It is essentially a country for the 
capitalist and for traction plowing. The latent resources are enor- 
mous, but judgment and discrimination should be exercised in the 
selection of land, the choice and cultivation of crops, and in obtain- 
ing adequate labor supplies. 

The Zambezi is navigable, for light-draft steamers, from January 
to June for a considerable distance. There is no difficulty in reaching 
Tete during that season, and even Feira, on the Rhodesian border. 
During dry seasons, however, the river falls rapidly and navigation 
becomes a tedious business. East of Mutarara none of the Zambezi 
tributaries are navigable with the exception of the Shire. Light 
steamers can reach Port Herald in the wet season and Villa Bocage 
throughout the year. Chinde is the port of shipment for the 
produce of the Zambezi district going to over-sea countries. 

PRINCIPAL CROPS GROWN. 

CORN. 

Corn may be considered the staple product of the territory, and 
it is already the means of livelihood of a large number of Europeans. 
The deep, rich red and chocolate soils of Chimoio and Manica pro- 
duce some of the finest "white flat" maize in South Africa. Yields 
of 35 bags of 200 pounds epch per acre have often been harvested, 
and on well-cultivated farms the average is 15 bags per acre. The 
rainfall is good during the growing season, while the dry winter 
months are suited for drying and shelling the maize in the open. 
The acreage under corn was 21,177 in 1913, 24,655 in 1914, and 
33,222 in 1915. After providing for the needs of its population, 
which are estimated at 50,000 bags per annum, the territory exports 
at present about 200,000 bags of corn. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 217 



SUGAR. 



The value of the exports of sugar far exceeds that of any otlier 
product. Many sections of the territory are exceedingly Aveil adapted 
for the cultivation of sugar cane, and in this industry there is 
room for almost unlimited expansion. At the present time sugar 
cane is grown onlj'' on the alluvial flats of the Zambezi and Buzi 
Rivers, but it is not improbable that before long factories will be 
erected on the upper reaches of the Buzi River and also along the 
Pungwe River. Three large mills on the Zambezi and two on the 
lower Buzi produced about 50,000 tons of sugar in 1915. The area 
under cultivation in the lands adjoining these mills iy steadily 
increasing. The Illobo Sugar Co. increased its acreage from 800 in 
1911 to 8,000 in 1915. 



COTTON. 



A good beginning has been made in the cultivation of cotton, 
which bids fair to become one of the most lucrative and solid indus- 
tries of the territory. Ninety-five per cent of the cotton is grown 
around Chemba, in the Sena district, Avhere there are enormous 
expanses of most excellent and suitable land. All cotton is grown 
by natives under the supervision of the official chief of the district. 
The natives are given the seed, and the crop is purchased by the 
Mozambique Co. at a fixed price. The yields average 350 pounds 
of seed cotton per acre, the percentage of lint being 30 per cent. 
The 1915 crop yielded 320 tons of seed cotton. The Mozambique 
Co. has under consideration plans for the development of the cotton- 
growing industry on an extensive scale. An up-to-date ginnery, 
costing $60,000, was erected some time ago at Chemba. 



OTHER CROPS. 



Mangrove bark suitable for tanning purposes is one of the chief 
products of the territory. In 1910, 2,200 tons were exported, whereas 
about 4,000 tons were shipped in 1914. The tanning contents aver- 
age 38 per cent. 

Coffee is being experimented with in the districts of Manica and 
Chimoio. and already a few 3-year-old trees have produced 
heavy vields of berries. Samples of these sent to Lisbon and London 
were favorably reported upon, their flavor and appearance being 
described as excellent. Recently the government distributed more 
than 1,000 young plants among farmers, with instructions as to 
planting and care of trees. There is evei^ indication that coffee 
can be successfidly grown in this territory, and a good many farmers 
are already putting down small plantations. 

vSisal seems to flourish at various places, but the only considerable 
area under cultivation (more than 1.000 acres) is at Villa Bocage, 
where the Zambezi Co. has installed a factory for the cleaning and 
preparation of the fiber. The fiber produced in the territory is 
claimed to be ecjual in strength, length, texture, and color to the best 
Mexican product, and in some cases it has brought higher prices. 

Peanuts are largely grown by natives, who sell them to the agents 
of various local firms for export to Marseille. In pre-war times 
large quantities were shipped to Germany. 



218 AGEICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINEKY. 

Samples of tobacco sent to the Transvaal have been pronounced 
satisfactory. The actual output is very small. The Sena Sugar Co., 
however, is said to contemplate the extensive cultivation of tobacco 
and cotton. 

LIVE STOCK. 

Portions of the territory are well adapted for cattle breeding, 
and in 1915 it had more than 100,000 head of cattle, of which about 
8,000 of improved breeds were the property of the Mozambique Co. 
The number of cattle increased more than 25 per cent since 19V6. 
The company, with the object of improving the quality, sells about 
1,000 head of cattle every year. The East Coast fever has not yet 
appeared in the territory, but certain districts are infested with 
tsetse fly. The government assists farmers in the construction of 
dipping tanks by making advances and supplying material at actual 
cost. 

FARM-MACHINERY TRADE. 

There are no figures available showing the value of farm machin- 
eiy and implements imported for use in the Mozambique Co.'s ter- 
ritory. As in the other sections of Portuguese East Africa, the 
imports of this class of goods are merged wdth those of other types 
of machiner}^ 

Under the heading of industrial and agricultural machiner}^ the 
following values have been imported from the United States in recent 
years: 1913, $215,482 ; 1914, $123,827; and 1915, $60,852. A con- 
servative estimate would place the value of farm machinery at pres- 
ent imported at $100,000 per annum. 

The importance of this market for American farm-machiner}- 
manufacturers must be viewed rather from the present indications 
of future development than the record of past importations of this 
class of goods. At the time of the writer's visit there, one of the 
leading men interested in the importation of farm machinerj^ made 
the statement that as much machinery was then being sold to the 
farmers of that territory as was purchased by Rhodesian farmers. 
In the writer's opinion Beira at this time offers as good prospects for 
the sale of this class of goods as an}^ other section of South Africa, 
and he firmly believes that unless some unforeseen condition arises 
the sections traversed by the Beira-Umtali Railway will witness a 
marked agricultural development in the next few years. 

There is no difference between the type of implements used in the 
Mozambique Co.'s territory and those used in the rest of South 
Africa. Rhodesian methods, howcA^er, on account of the proximity 
to that country, exert a great deal of influence, and disk plows, con- 
sequently, are used in larger numbers than moldboard plows. Corn 
is the chief crop grown by individual farmers, and wherever oxen 
can be used American corn machinery should be actively in demand. 
Wherever the tsetse fly is still found, oxen-drawn implements can 
not be used, and in those sections a limited number of small tractors 
could undoubtedly be sold. In some parts of the country the work 
is done entirely by hand, natives being employed, because farmers 
with small means are not able to clear all their cultivated land of 
stumps when first starting operations. The success alread}^ attained 
by many farmers, how^ever, should induce many new settlers with 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 219 

adequate capital to engage in fanning in the territor}. A factor 
not to be overlooked in the future demand for implements is that 
whenever a new settler starts operations in the territorv he requires 
a full set of implements. 

The principal Rhodesian firms maintain branches at Beira, the 
onl}^ center of importance in the Mozambique Co.'s territory in con- 
nection with the sale of farm machinery. As the country develops, 
however, firms soleh^ engaged in that territory's business are being- 
established, which, even now, might be interested in making suitable 
connections with American manufacturers of farm machinery. When- 
ever Rhodesia is visited in the interest of manufacturers of this 
class of goods, the return trip to the Union of South Africa should 
by all means be made via Beira. 

NYASSA CO.'S TERRITORY. 

The Nyassa Co. administers the northern portion of Portuguese 
East Africa, its charter rights comprising about 75,000 square miles 
of territory, with its base at Porto Amelia, in which there are 
about 500 whites. 

The imports into this territory amounted in 1914 to $607,138, the 
principal items being: Live oxen, $39,420; gold coin, $86,315; dyed, 
printed, gray, and bleached cotton, $193,031 ; food products, $12,- 
684; and telegraphic material, $20,531. Many other articles in 
smaller quantities were imported. The imports from the United 
States amounted to $226. 

The exports amounted to $248,419 and consisted of the following 
products: Crude Avax. $78,350; peanuts, $57,633; Indian corn, $21,- 
567; tobacco, $15,174; sesame seed, $23,723; and smaller quantities 
of crude rubber, raw tobacco, gum copal, and mangrove bark. 

The countr}^ possesses potential agricultural possibilities, but 
(chiefl}^ on account of its unhealthful climate) no efforts have so 
far been made to develop them along modern lines. 

The imports of industrial and agricultural machinery amounted 
to $2,614, reflecting the exceedingly unimportant part that farm ma- 
chinery plays at present in the development of its resources. The 
chief business of the company at this time is to supply native labor 
for the mines at Katanga, Belgian Kongo, and to the other sections 
of Portuguese East Africa. 



IX. SOUTHWEST AFRICA. 

This territory was known as German Southwest Africa prior to its 
occupation by the British army, from the Union of South Africa, 
during the present war. It has an area of 322,450 square miles and is 
bounded by the Kunene River, Portuguese West Africa, and Rho- 
desia on the north and east, and by the Orange River and Cape 
Province on the south. Swakopmund and Luderitzbucht are its 
seaports, although the natural port of the country is Walfish Bay, a 
British possession, a short distance south of Swakopmund. Its 
European population, according to the census of January 1, 1913, 
was 14,830, of whom 10,226 were Germans, including 3,522 civil and 
military government servants. The estimated native population is 
80,000, excluding Ovampoland and Caprivizipfel, two regions re- 
motely situated, which are inhabited by 200,000 natives. The com- 
paratively small native population of the country explains its slow 
economic development, and it is also a reflection of the meager poten- 
tialities for development in comparison with the adjoining terri- 
tories, particularly those situated to the south and east. 

The Germans were in possession of Southwest Africa for some 30 
j^ears, and they spent large sums of money and much labor to make 
homes for their immigrants and to provide a market for German 
trade. They built railways, established townships, linked up wideh 
scattered settlements, developed mineral resources, improved stock 
sunk wells, and encouraged irrigation. 

PHYSICAL FEATURES. 

In the center of the country, from north to south, there is a long, 
broad mountain range forming a fine plateau, gently sloping to tht 
north, as also toward the south, the height averaging between 3,0o< 
and 4,000 feet, although in a few places it rises to 7,000 feet. Aloiii? 
the coast there is a strip of land from 25 to 100 miles wide that is 
nothing but a sandy desert and the most hopeless part of the country 
from either a pastoral or agricultural point of view. Its reclamation 
is much impeded by the shifting sand and, before the discovery of 
extensive diamond areas, that part of the country was entirely 
shunned by Europeans. 

The sections between the coastal belt in the west' and the Kalahari 
Desert in the east are, as a rule, fairly well covered with the varie 
ties of bush and grass characteristic of the arid sections of Soutli 
Africa, which in spite of their unpromising appearance are mucl 
valued for grazing purposes. 

CLIMATE AND RAINFALL. 

Summer in Southwest Africa lasts from October to March ami 
winter from April to September. The climate in the central region 
is temperate and healthful, with a cool, dry, and generally pleasing 

220 



MAEKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 221 

atmosphere. The fluctuations of the temperature are sometimes 
great. In the southern portions of Great Namaqualancl it is in- 
tensely hot in the summer, though quite heaUhful for Europeans. 
Malaria in a mild form may be contracted in the subtropical north 
and northeast, and black water fever is not unknown in the north. 
Snow sometimes falls on the mountains in the coldest weather, and 
occasionally frost occurs on the uplands. 

The northern regions around Grootfontein and Otavi have an 
annual rainfall of from 20 to 30 inches. In the Windhoek district 
toward the south, the rainfall is about 15 inches. Great Namaqua- 
land in the south is much drier, having only 6 or 7 inches and very 
often much less than that. The Namib district, in the southwest, 
has about an inch of rainfall a year. As is the case in other parts 
of South Africa, the rainy season is confined to two or three months. 
and then the storms are often so violent that the water quickly runs 
off the baked soil into the watercourses. The rainy season is from 
December to March, although occasionally rain may fall at other 
times. Droughts of great severity and length are known in Great 
Namaqualand, and the northern and central regions also have had 
exceptionally dry periods. Generallj^ speaking, where the rainfall is 
seemingly abundant the climate is somewhat unhealthful. 

PRINCIPAL SETTLEMENTS. 

The population is widely scattered, and at this time the principal 
European settlements are Swakopmund, Windhoek (the capital), 
Omaruru, Otavi, Rehoboth, Luderitzbucht, Keetmanshoop, Warm- 
bad, Maltahoehe, Tsumeb, Grootfontein, Karibib, Okahandja, Goba- 
bis, Usakos, Gibeon, Bethanien, and Waterberg. 

FOREIGN TRADE. 

The imports into and the exports from Southwest Africa, in recent 
years, have been as follows : 



Years. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


1897 


$1,189,207 
7,882,732 

10,790,072 
7,776,599 
4,477,112 


S393,606 
393, 130 


1907 


1910 


8, 441, 275 


1912 


9,339,967 
6,993,715 


1913 (first 6 months) 





The imports consist chiefly of foodstuffs, furniture, and other 
requisites for the white population, supplies for the government 
and its officials, railway material, and mining machinery. Minerals, 
chiefly diamonds, constitute about 98 per cent of the exports. Ger- 
man}^, before the war, had approximately 80 per cent of the total 
trade of the country. 

If Southwest Africa remains under the control of the British 
Empire after the war, it will offer a fair opportunity for the sale 
of a variety of American goods. For some years to come, however, 
the white population will be chiefly composed of persons of German 
stock, who will undoubtedly show a preference, owing to custom 
and habit, for German goods. 



222 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

MINING. 

The diamond industry is the dominating factor in the trade of 
Southwest Africa. Without it the progress the country has made 
in the last few years would have been impossible. The output of 
diamonds in 1913 Avas valued at $14,000,000, more than double the 
output of 1911. Copper mining is also a rapidly grooving industry. 
During the first half of 1913 copper was exported to the value of 
$759,690. Gold, silver, lead, and tin have also been found. Near 
the Otavi Railwa}^, 109 miles from Swakopmund, valuable deposits 
of colored marble exist. Southwest Africa is reputed to possess 
some of the finest marble quarries in the world. 

RAILWAYS. 

In 1914 Southwest Africa had some 1,400 miles of railways. It 
is not improbable that it can show more extensive railway develop- 
ment in recent years than any other section of South Africa. Rail- 
way communication with the Union of South Africa via Prieska 
and Upington has been completed since the outbreak of the war. 
This railway was constructed as a militar}^ necessity, but it will 
doubtless become a permanent steel highway between the Union 
and Southwest Africa. It is not improbable that eventually most 
of the European traffic with the Transvaal will be handled via the 
ports in Southwest Africa, utilizing this railway ; this would benefit 
the latter country in many ways. 

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS AND PROSPECTS. 

As a whole, nothing but pessimistic views have been expressed in 
regard to the agricultural future of Southwest Africa. This in- 
dustry at present consists merely of garden culture, confined to 
small areas and nearly always assisted by irrigation. Since no rain 
falls for almost nine consecutive months, farming, as understood in 
the United States, is nonexistent. It is only on the alluvial land 
(flooded by the so-called rivers during the rain}^ season), where a 
little loose and fertile soil collects, that a number of small holdings 
are cultivated. 

The rainfall is seldom sufficient, and the soil is rarely suitable 
for agriculture. In the southern and central parts of the country, 
out of an area of many thousand square miles only a very small 
proportion is arable land. Native labor is scarce and unreliable and 
the markets are very restricted. Although high prices are some- 
times obtained for produce, they often do not compensate for the 
cost of cultivation, transport, irrigation, etc. 

Considering the vast area of land that Southwest Africa com- 
prises, the acreage under cultivation is astonishingly small. In 1915 
there were about 1,300 farms occupying an area of approxiniately 
35,000,000 acres, of which fewer than 15,000 acres were under tillage. 
Persons engaged in farming number 1,587 adults, or about 25 per 
cent of the civilian population. The district of Grootfontein con- 
tains about one-fourth of the cultivated land. The holdings average 
from 15 to 25 acres and are invariably under irrigation. 

The principal crops grown are wheat, corn, Kafir corn, potatoes, 
tobacco, grapes, peas, beans, and onions. Alfalfa grows exceed- 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 223 

ingly well under irrigation, and as many as 8 to 10 cuts a year have 
been averaged. Fruit growing has been attended with fairly sat- 
isfactoiy results, but so far it has hardly passed the experimental 
stage. 

Much of the land of Southwest Africa is held by large land com- 
panies (the majority being German), which have made little or no 
effort, so far, to attract agricultural settlers. The principal land 
companies, with the number of square miles of land they own, are 
as follows: The German Colonial Co., 52,500; the Kaoko Land Co.. 
40,500; the Southwest Africa Co. (Ltd.), 5,000; the Otavi Mines & 
Railway Co., 1,000; the South African Territories (Ltd.), 4,650; 
and the Hanseatic Mining & Trading Co., 3,875. 

Land can be bought from the government in blocks of 5,000 hectares 
(about 25,000 acres) at the following prices: Northern section, 1.20 
marks (about 30 cents) per hectare (2.471 acres) ; southern section, 
0.70 mark (about 20 cents) per hectare. Payment is made 10 per 
cent in cash and the remainder in installments of 10 per cent, free 
of interest. Occupation and cultivation are obligatory. 

IRRIGATION POSSIBILITIES. 

As a rule agricultural work can not be undertaken in Southwest 
Africa without resorting to irrigation. The outlook for extensive 
irrigation development, unfortunately, is not very encouraging. The 
few rivers intersecting the country are often useless for that pur- 
pose, since the overhanging banks of the surrounding plateaus often 
have a sheer rise of several hundred feet from the water. Fair sup- 
plies of water, however, may generally be tapped at moderate depths 
in most parts of the country, except for several miles along the 
entire coast. Almost everj^where in Southwest Africa part of the 
rain water sinks through clefts in the ground; part of it quickly 
evaporates and part collects in countless large and small beds, a 
great network of which intersects the greater part of the country. 

Previous to the European war the German Government main- 
tained two "boring columns," at an annual cost of about $200,000, 
which undertook all kinds of work connected with water supplies, 
besides boring tube wells. During 1913 about a dozen artesian wells 
were located and bored in the southern sections of the country. 

There are a number of places where streams carry the rain water 
to the coast, passing through narrow passages between mountain 
rocks, and where there are exceptional opportunities for the construc- 
tion of reservoirs for irrigation purposes. The development of four 
large projects of this kind, involving a total expenditure of about 
$2,500,000, which would facilitate the storage of 29,750 million gallons 
of water, were under consideration before the war. The execution 
of these projects would have the effect of bringing large areas of 
land under cultivation, the land adjacent to these proposed reservoirs 
being considered as among the most fertile in South Africa. 

Until irrigation schemes are carried out it is certain that agricul- 
ture will play but a subordinate part in Southwest Africa. Crop 
growing may be a profitable auxiliary to stock farming in extremely 
favorable seasons, iDut the country will always remain preeminently 
suited for pastoral pursuits. 



224 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

STOCK RAISING. 

In connection with Southwest Africa as a stock-raising country, it 
is stated that the German Colonial Secretary, who visited the country 
a few years ago, declared that it was "a potential Argentina or Can- 
ada" and anticipated that the day would come when 3,000,000 cattle 
and 10,000,000 sheep would pasture upon its vast inland prairies. 
This is generall}^ regarded as too optimistic a view of the pastoral 
possibilities of the country, although other investigators have con- 
firmed the fact that it has a promising future in that connection. 
Certainly cattle grow big and strong and are extremely prolific. 
The chief value of the land lies in the fact that every blade of grass, 
leaf, or shoot possesses unusual nourishing properties. During the 
rainy season, for three or four months, the land is a picture of green 
vegetation and affords most excellent pasturage. Even after a long 
drought this retains its nourishing qualities and provides excellent 
feed for small stock. For the successful pastoral development of 
the countrv, however, the making and preservation of ensilage for 
winter feeding should be taken into account. 

The area required for a stock farm is large, and a farm capable of 
giving a suitable return for labor and expenditure should be at least 
20,000 to 30.000 acres in extent. A farm of 20,000 acres in Southwest 
Africa would carry from 400 to 500 head of cattle and a few hundred 
sheep. 

When the war broke out the country was carrying the following 
stock: 205,000 cattle, 500,000 native sheep, 485,000 common goats, 
55,000 woolen sheep, and a number of horses, mules, pigs, ostriches, 
etc. It is claimed that the increase of cattle in recent years has been 
at the rate of 70 per cent per year and of sheep 100 per cent and that 
three-fourths of the country's area is suitable for stock farming. The 
Liebig Co. has acquired a farm with a view to cattle farming on a 
large scale and with the ultimate purpose of establishing a factory 
for beef products. Meat and meat extracts promise to be the land 
industries that can be most successfully developed in Southwest 
Africa. 

KARAKUL SHEEP— OSTRICHES. 

The raising of Karakul sheep is proving a profitable industry. A 
stud farm has been established, and a number of pure and half-breed 
sheep of this type have been shipped to other parts of South Africa. 
Karakul sheep are said to be the hardiest sheep in South Africa. The 
sample skins of half-breed animals that have been sent to Europe have 
been highly commended. Ten dollars and even more has been paid 
for an exceptionally good lambskin, although the industry can be 
carried on at a profit if from $2.50 to $3.25 is realized per skin. 

Ostriches do well in Southwest Africa. The breeding and rearing 
of these animals, it is hoped, will form a lucratiA^e industry in the 
future. 

MARKET FOR FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS. 

It will be obvious, in view of the information given concerning the. 
agricultural prospects in Southwest Africa, that the demand for 
agricultural machinery and implements is exceedingly small. The 
writer did not visit Southwest Africa but made efforts to ascertain 



MAEKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 225 

the extent of the importation of this class of goods. With the 
exception of vague remarks to the effect that, since the majority ol 
farmers in that country came from Germany, they use such machines 
as they were familiar with before going to Southwest Africa, and 
that occasionally a few walking plows and disk harrows have been 
imported from the United States, no information of a definite nature 
has been obtained. The fact that but 15,000 acres of land are under 
cultivation is sufficient indication that the demand is altogether 
unimportant. 

Gen. Botha, the Premier of the Union of South Africa, has 
publicly stated his intention to encourage the settling of 10,000 white 
farmers in Southwest Africa. A good many farmers, who as soldiers 
went through the military campaign under his leadership, are known 
to have signified their desire and willingness to return to that coun- 
try to take up farming as soon as its future political status is defi- 
nitely decided upon at the termination of the present war. 

With the exception of such land as may eventually be brought 
under irrigation, Southwest Africa is looked upon as a country ii> 
which the sole farming industry will be cattle and sheep raising. 
Incidentally, a certain demand for farm machinery may develop, 
owing to the belief that, in consequence of the frequently occurring 
droughts, the growing of ensilage crops would enable the farmers to 
withstand unfavorable grazing seasons. 

Manufacturers of farm machinery and implements would hardly 
be justified at present (and the situation is not likely to alter in the 
near future) in making any efforts whatever to seek trade in that 
country other than by offering their goods to the various general 
merchants established there, by means of catalogues and correspond- 
ence. 

1276°— 17— No. 146 15 



X. BELGIAN KONGO: KATANGA. 

Since ^e district of Katanga, the southernmost section of the 
Belgian Kongo, receives its over-sea supplies and exports its produce 
via Beira, m Portuguese East Africa, and Port Elizabeth and Cape 
iown, m the Union of South Africa, and its trade, furthermore, is 
closely linked with that of other sections of South Africa, it is felt 
that information regarding its agricultural development and re- 
sources may appropriately be included in this report. 

Katanga has become widely known in recent years because of its 
vast mineral resources, consisting of copper and other metals. 
Elizabethville, its capital, contains the largest white population 
(about 1,000) of any town in the Kongo. Eailways connect Katanga 
with the neighboring countries to the south. The Cape-Cairo main 
liiie is its principal railway. Sakania is the station at the boundary 
of Northern Ehodesia and Katanga. The line at this time reaches as 
far north as Bukama, Belgian Kongo, about 400 miles north of 
Elizabethville. The construction of the railway from Kambove, in 
the Katanga district (the site of the Union Miniere copper mine, 
which is said to be enormously rich and to stand in the midst of one 
of the most highly mineralized districts known), to Lobito Bay, in 
Portuguese West Africa, which will be 1,300 miles long, is being 
pressed forward and in possibly two years it should be completed. 
That railway will place the Katanga district several days nearer to 
Europe than the present routes via Cape or Portuguese East African 
ports. 

The writer did not visit Katanga, but the agricultural future and 
outlook of that country can be intelligently estimated with the aid 
of the following statement from M. Edmond Leplae, Director-Gen- 
eral of Agriculture: 

OFFICIAL ENCOURAGEMENT AND AID FOR AGRICULTURE. 

" The Belgian Government is keenly interested in the agriculture 
of Southern Katanga, whose climatic conditions are suitable for set- 
tlers. As almost no other part of the extensive Kongo colony is 
suited for Europeans, this is the Province likely to be resei'ved for 
white settlement later on- 

" Only a small number of Belgian farmers arrived in this country 
before the war. The Pastorale Co. was started by private individuals 
to help the settlers, with the special approval of King Leopold. 
However, this company rapidly exhausted its capital in this very 
expensive country; so the Government organized an Agricultural 
Department, bought large supplies of machinery, steam plows, porta- 
ble buildings, seeds, and cattle, made roads, etc., in order to assist 
the farming industry in getting quickly over the difficulties. In 
226 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 227 

this manner results were obtained in 4 j^ears that could not have 
been realized elsewhere in less than 15 or 20 years. 

" Henceforth only two experiment stations will be provided — 
first, the Munama farm, experimenting on crops and irrigation; 
second, the cattle-breeding station of Katentania, on the table-lands 
of Biano, 10 miles from Kansenia railway station. The cattle are 
divided among about a dozen substations, and number to-day 1,700 
head ; 200 or 300 sheep will shortly be brought on the farm. Great 
care is taken to guard the cattle against contagious disease. It is 
hoped that in five or six years it will be possible to admit private 
settlers on the table-lands, but we do not want to run risks, as Rho- 
desia was visited twice by diseases and lost thousands of cattle. 

" It took us several years to acquire sufficient knowledge of climate 
and soil. Our agricultural meteorological station, the laboratory 
devoted to soil analysis, and the Munama experiment farm were of 
very great help in this research work. We understand now how to 
maintain the fertility of our soils — a very difficult problem. Irri- 
gation has given fine results, as shown at Munama. 

" Of the first settlers, many went home after a time or undertook 
some other work; but a few remained, and some new men joined 
them. There are now about 50 farmers in Katanga, the aggregate 
value of the crops grown this year on their farms being about 
$97,330. This is rather satisfactory, as four years ago this country 
was purely forest and bush, and is still full of tsetse fly. 

" These farms, however, are only a beginning. After the war new 
settlers will probably be sent from Belgium, among them disabled 
soldiers or people that have been severely tried by the war. Nearly 
all the British colonies will provide for the settlement of a number 
of former soldiers on the land after the war ; Belgium will probably 
do the same. 

" The farms around Elizabethville are small, as good soils are to 
be found only in limited patches. More extensive farms are being 
cleared now in Kapiri, and some more are being prospected along 
the lower Lufira. As the tsetse fly is very common there, plowing 
will be done by steam traction engines. In order to assist the farm- 
ers, the repairing shed of Elizabethville will be moved to some site 
near N'guba, on the agricultural traction road running from the 
Lufira to Kapiri (100 miles). 

"As His Excellency, the Vice Governor General, our Government's 
representative, follows every development of agriculture, the set- 
tlers should have no fear at all that their rights or interests will be 
forgotten. 

DESIRABILITY OF COOPERATION. 

^ " The settlers could derive much profit by starting a farmers' asso- 
ciation, to buy and sell all products necessary for, or raised on, their 
farms, to handle the crops, build oil or flour mills, etc. The farmers' 
associations in Belgium have in 25 years made our Belgian farmers 
rich. They buy and sell everything that is needed or grown by the 
farmer; they own large mills, hundreds of steam dairies, mutual in- 
surances of every description (fire, diseases of men and cattle, etc.), 
and hundreds of agricultural loan banks. The Boerenbond (Farm- 
ers' League) of Louvain has 50.000 members and handles yearly more 



228 AGRICULTUEAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY. 

than $5,000,000. Its motto is: 'Help yourself.' This ad^dce should 
be adhered to by the farmers in Katanga, as their Rhodesian brothers 
seem intent on pressing them hard with competition ; association and 
official advice will enable them to stand the coming rush. 

DEMAND FOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE. 

" Some people, when hearing of new settlers arriving from Europe, 
seem to fear that overproduction will occur very soon if new farms 
are started. This is not to be feared for the present, as we import 
every year, via Sakania (Ehodesian border), about $500,000 worth of 
farm products and in addition we buy about $100,000 worth of pro- 
duce grown by our local farmers and at least $100,000 worth of grain 
from natives. This means that we consume at present $700,000 worth 
of farm produce. Some of these products, such as cattle, milk, and 
butter, we will not be able to raise in sufficient quantities for many 
years. The approximate value of the produce at present imported, 
which we could successfully grow immediately, is as follows: Poul- 
try, $5,500; eggs, $8,000; maize, $39,000; flour and meal, $60,000; 
fresh vegetables, $4,150 ; dry vegetables, $2,800 ; preserved vegetables, 
$6,500; coffee, $10,600 ; groundnuts, $7,300; and tobacco, $6,000. This 
shows that the farming production might be doubled immediately. 
It might be increased fourfold when cattle-breeding shall have made 
a good start. My conclusion is that our settlers need have no fear.'' 

FARM-MACHINERY TRADE. 

The preceding review indicates the present unimportant position 
of agriculture in Katanga. Conditions in that respect are quite 
similar to those prevailing in northern Ehodesia and the same crops 
are also grown. 

The government of Katanga, it is understood, has imported direct 
the farm machinery and implements that it has required for its ex- 
periment stations and farms. The machines used by the farmers m 
that territory have, for the most part, been shipped there from 
Ehodesia or the Union of South Africa. Since oxen can not be used 
in some of the farming areas on account of the tsetse fly the number 
of implements shipped to the country is very small, as most of the 
agricultural work is done by the natives by hand. It would seem 
that, because of the presence of the tsetse fly, a hmited number ot 
small tractors suitable for general farmmg purposes (preterably 
those suited to operate corn cultivators) , could be sold m the Katanga 
district. 



XL MAURITIUS. 

Mauritius was not visited by the writer, but owing to the fact that 
that island can be best reached from Durban in 10 days or Beira in 6 
days — two ports nearly always visited by representatives of Ameri- 
can firms — it is felt that the following information concerning Mau- 
ritius will be of interest to American manufacturers of farm ma- 
chinery and implements. Reports by i^merican Consul James G. 
Carter, at Tamatave, Madagascar, and by the statistician and the 
director of agriculture of Mauritius have, in the main, supplied the 
data for this report. 

The island of Mauritius is a British possession situated in the 
southern Indian Ocean, about 500 miles east of Madagascar and 
2,189 miles from Durban. The area of the mainland is about 708 
square miles and that of the small neighboring islets 4 square miles. 
Of the 382,714 inhabitants at the end of 1915, 261,093 were Indians, 
who make up the laboring element. The industrial activities of 
the colony are controlled by the Mauritian descendants of the former 
French and Dutch settlers and by Indian and British merchants. 
Most of the commerce is carried on at Port Louis, the capital and 
principal town on the northwestern coast, the population of which 
is about 42,000. Correspondence with Mauritian firms may be either 
in English or French. On December 31, 1915, there were 120 miles 
of railway and 432 miles of main public roads, owned and operated 
by the government. 

FOREIGN TRADE. 

The total foreign trade of Mauritius in 1915 was valued at 
$33,829,616, and it has shown a steady increase for many years. 
The imports in 1915 amounted to $15,591,840 and the exports to 
$18,237,776. Foodstuffs, chemicals, fertilizers, machinery, and wear- 
ing apparel are the principal articles imported. Sugar is practically 
the only product the country exports, as evidenced by the fact that 
sugar valued at $17,551,822 was exported in 1915. 

The imports from the United States into Mauritius in 1915 were 
valued at $704,583, against $222,748 in 1914, an increase of $481,835. 
Machinery for mechanical transport valued at $122,131 was im- 
ported from the United States that year, against no imports of these 
goods in 1914. This material consisted of hoisting machinery for 
unloading sugar cane from tram and railway wagons, small cane 
carts, etc. Motor cars, salted meats, petroleum, tobacco, and timber 
are the other principal imports from the United States. 

LAND UNDER CULTIVATION— CROPS GROWN. 

Of the cultivated lands in 1915, amounting to 210,768 acres, 170,426 
acres were devoted to sugar, 20,860 acres to aloe fiber, and 19,482 
acres to food crops required by the European and Indian population, 

229 



230 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMEJiTTS AND MACHINERY. 

&uch as vegetables, corn, manioc, tea, vanilla, coffee, fruits, etc 
lliere is also a good production for local consumption of rum vine- 
gar, and butter and other dairy produce. ' 

The soil of Mauritius is very fertile, and it is constantly improved 
by a good manurmg system. The burying under of all cane trash 
is a regular practice. In some localities the land is exceedinglv 
valuable, and as much as $1,000 has been paid for an acre of land. 

SUGAR GROWING. 

The sugar industry is the economic and commercial mainstay 
o± Mauritius. The annual sugar crop averages about 250,000 tons 
of 2,240 pounds. That of 1915-16 was 217,000 tons, compared with 
about 270,000 tons for the period from August 1, 1914, to July 31, 
1915. The 1916-17 crop was estimated, previous to a cyclone that 
visited Mauritius in May, 1916, at 280,000 tons. There are about 
60 sugar factories connected with 150 or more sugar estates, whose 
cultivated areas average from about 100 to 2,500 acres. About two- 
thirds of the sugar factories average an output of 5,000 to 10,000 
tons per annum, and about one-fourth of them more than 10,000 tons. 
The industry has made considerable progress during the past decade, 
the production for the year 1913-14 being nearly twice that for the 
year 1904-5. 

Considering the area of Mauritius, it is obvious that the possi- 
bilities for the expansion of the industry are nearly exhausted. A 
careful survey to ascertain the possibility of further extending the 
sugar industry, made by the administration of the colony, discloses 
the fact that the country possesses only 55,000 acres more in which 
sugar might be grown. This land is inferior in quality to that now 
under cultivation and is relatively distant from the factories. If 
sugar prices remain steady, and labor is both plentiful and obtain- 
able at a reasonable figure, it is not improbable that in the course 
of a few years these vacant lands will be planted with sugar and 
that about 310,000 tons of sugar will be produced annually. 

METHODS OF SUGAR CULTIVATION. 

The varieties of cane chiefly grown are White Tanna and several 
Demerara seedling canes. Uba cane is grown in lands of low fer- 
tility. As a rule canes are planted in holes, during December and 
January — two or three cane tops in each hole. Toward the end of 
April, holes are made around the plants and barnyard manure is 
applied at the rate of 20 to 30 tons per acre. The fields are continu- 
ally kept clean by cultivation until the canes are full grown. The 
canes are generally trashed some time before cutting. 

Cane is brought from the fields to the mills by means of tramway 
lines, traction engines, and ordinary carts. Until recently manual 
labor was employed to unload the cane into the cane carrier, but the 
mechanical loading of cane is making rapid progress since an Ameri- 
can cane unloader proved very successful two or three years ago. 
The tramway system is rapidly expanding, since animals are subject 
to disease and therefore can not be depended upon for this work. 

Most of the estates crush outside growers' cane in addition to 
their own, and some of them depend chiefly on growers' cane, the 
latter selling it at so much per 1,000 pounds. 



MARKETS IN SOUTH AFEIOA. 231 

LABOR. 

Labor is comparatively cheap. The cultivation of su^t cane is 
mostly in the hands of Indians, indentured from India. These earn 
about 25 cents a day. Women also work in the sugar fields, cleaning 
the land and trashing cane, earning 15 to 20 cents m the mter-crop 
season and about 25 cents during the crop season. Ot late years 
Indians have refused to renew their engagements, thus becoming tree 
laborers, and since immigration has practically stopped owing to the 
Government's belief that there is an excess of population m the coun- 
try, labor has gradually become dearer. This condition may bring 
in its wake the more extensive use of tillage machinery. 
MARKET FOR FARM MACHINERY. 

There has been a good deal of interest in agricultural machinery 
in Mauritius during^ the past few years. Customs returns indicate 
that during the vear 1909 but two agricultural implements were 
imported. The number increased to 37 in 1912 and 259 in 1913, with 
91 in 1914. The war probably caused the decline in the importations 
of 1914. The majority of implements now in use in Mauritius have 
been imported from the United States and consist of single-furrow 
plows, double moldboard plows, disk plows, harrows, and cultivators. 

The area of land tilled with implements, during several recent 
years, is given as follows: 1909, about 6,000 acres; 1912, about 15,000 
acres ; and 1914, about 27,000 acres. 

Plows are used in increasing numbers. A good many middlebreak- 
ers are used to open furrows, between the cane rows, in which to bury 
the cane trash. Where the soil is deep and without stones disk plow^ 
are increasing in favor. The drawback in extending the use of plows 
and cultivating machinery is that in a good many parts the soil con- 
tains numerous stones, in addition to being quite hilly. 

The department of agriculture recommends the greater use of plow- 
ing and cultivating machinery as a means of effecting possible and 
necessary economies. It claims that considerable areas could be culti- 
vated entirely with machinery. It was also suggested, some time 
ago, that inducements be offered to sugar growers to import tractors. 
Bonuses of $250 were proposed for the first tractor doing successful 
work in sugar plantations and for the first tractor to do so using 
industrial alcohol as fuel. The introduction of tractors is recom- 
mended because there is a shortage of pasturage in certain sugar 
estates, making it necessary to feed the oxen with expensive imported 
foods. There is also a shortage of good draft oxen, chiefly by reason 
of the fact that cattle diseases are prevalent in the country. The 
opinion has been expresvsed that tractors of from 12 to 15 drawbar 
horsepower would meet the average requirements. 

After everything is considered the fact remains that the present 
demand for agricultural implements in Mauritius is very small and 
that the prospects, chiefly because of the small area of the country, 
are not such as to justify the hope of an important future demand 
for this class of goods. It might be well, however, to enter into 
correspondence with firms at Port Louis, offering such machines as 
mav be suitable for sugar-cane growing and the soil conditions pre- 
vailing in that country, as a small demand for implements is likely 
to become permanently established. 

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